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STONYHURST 


L A T I N GRAMMAR 


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STONYHURST 


LATIN GRAM MAR 



REV. JOHN GERARD, S.J. 

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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS 
EDINBURGH AND LONDON 
MDCCCLXXXVI 


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i 

PREFACE. 


If one more Latin Grammar is added to the existing 
multitude, it is not without a very definite object. That 
object is to attempt to teach by exhibiting principles 
rather than by formulating rules; to enable the learner 
at each step to perceive reasons as well as facts, and in 
so doing, to recognise the universal laws which govern all 
language. It is the singular fitness of Latin for such a 
work that secures for it the position which it holds in the 
field of education. 

In order to ensure that each step taken shall be under¬ 
stood, a beginning must be made with something already 
known. Any one who can talk his own language at all 
correctly, implicitly possesses the fundamental principles 
of grammar. By analysis these are rendered explicit, and 
become the basis of deductions which serve as guiding 
lines whereby to survey and map out the whole of the 
subject. We begin, therefore, with explanation of funda¬ 
mental principles, exemplified by means of English alone, 
up to that point where the inflexional character of Latin 
seems to make it a fitter instrument for the work. 

Throughout, the arrangement is based on the analysis 
of the sentence, inflexions and constructions being alike 
treated according to the part they play in the expression 



VI 


PREFACE. 


of thought. It is the thing thought which determines the 
form of the thing said, and forms of words or of clauses 
are admitted or not in practice, according as they do or 
do not satisfy the sense to be conveyed. The early recog¬ 
nition of the truths that each Case, Tense, and Mood differs 
from the rest in its nature; that each has its own function 
as well as its own form; that it is used when the meaning 
it conveys is required, and not otherwise, and, instead of 
memory-rules, a perception of the true nature and function 
of these various parts,—will, it is thought, enable a student 
to acquire a knowledge of the language, not only with more 
ease, but in more solid fashion. 

The book is intended entirely for class-work, for in all 
teaching the most important factor is the living voice of 
the master, which nothing can replace. It has not, there¬ 
fore, been attempted to construct a text which shall be 
wholly self-interpreting. At the same time, it is believed 
that, once understood, the various enunciations will suffice 
for the scholar’s own use. 

Constant reference of all points to analysis has been 
found to necessitate various departures from generally 
received classification, and some novelties of terminology. 
In particular may be mentioned the distinction of the 
Perfect and Preterite tenses, of Connective Adverbs and 
Conjunctions, and especially of Oblique and Indirect con¬ 
structions. 

While it is our object to reduce memory-work to a 
minimum, a school-grammar must contain a record of all 
grammatical facts which schoolboys may be expected to 
know; and as it is not advisable in practice to have to 
consult different parts of a book for information upon one 
subject, less usual or exceptional forms and constructions 
are dealt with by means of notes attached to the various 
articles. 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


The form given for analysis is, with a few slight modifi¬ 
cations, that of Mr Timing’s ‘Elements of Grammar.’ To 
the same high authority thanks are due for valuable sug¬ 
gestions and criticisms. 

Reference is throughout to sections ; and in order that the 
number of each may indicate the nature of its contents, the 
following system has been adopted : The sections of the 
Introduction are numbered from i upwards; those of the 
Accidence, from ioi ; of the Syntax, from 201; of the 
Appendices, from 301 ; although in no case are all the 
intervening numbers occupied. 

The letter a added to a figure indicates a note or notes 
on the section so numbered. The symbol *** indicates 
an observation preceding, and NB. an observation fol¬ 
lowing, the section to which it refers. 


Stonyhurst, September 1886. 



CONTENTS 


Part I. — Introduction. 


PAGE 

Words and Sentences, ........ i 

Parts of Speech, ......... 4 

Nouns and Pronouns, ........ 4 

Verbs and Complements, ........ 6 

Adjectives, .......... 9 

Adverbs, ........... 10 

Cases and Prepositions, . . . . . . . . 12 

Conjunctions, .......... 14 

Analysis of Sentences, . . . . . . . . 15 

Sentences—Simple, Complex, and Compound,. . . . 15 

Comparison, .......... 17 

The Verb, .......... 19 

,, Finite and Infinite, ....... 19 

Moods and Tenses, ......... 20 

Agreement, .......... 23 

Inflexion, .......... 24 


Part II.—Latin Accidence. 


Nouns, ........... 25 

First Declension, ......... 28 

Second ,, ......... 29 

Third ,, ......... 31 

Fourth ,, ......... 34 

Fifth „ . 35 

Adjectives, .......... 4 ° 

Pronouns, 47 

Determinative Adjectives, ....... 48 




















X 


CONTENTS. 


Relatives, 

Interrogatives, 

Indefinites, 

Correlatives, 

Numerals, 

Vei'bs, 

The Verb Infinitive, 

Regular Verbs, First Conjugation, 
,, Second ,, 

,, Third „ 

,, Fourth ,, 

Notes on the Conjugations, 
Different Kinds of Verbs, 

Table of Verbs, 

Particles or Indeclinable Words, 


Part III.—Syntax. 

Syntax, . 

Verb and Subject, . 

Verb and Complement, 

Qualification of Nouns, 

Relative Clause, 

Cases, with Verbs and Adjectives, 

Description, 

Source and Separation, 

Place, 

Space, 

Time, 

Amount, . 

Accusation, 

Ablative Absolute, 

Other Case Constructions, 

Accusative with Intransitives, 

Genitive, . 

Dative, Indirect Object, 

Comparison, 

Synopsis of Case Uses, 

Impersonal Verbs, . 

Active Impersonals, 

Passive ,, 

Syntax of Moods, 

Preliminary Definitions, 


50 

51 
5i 

54 

55 
60 

65 

70 

73 

76 

79 

82 

84 

95 

103 


106 
106 
108 
110 
112 
114 
114 
116 
118 
118 
120 
120 
120 
120 
122 
122 
124 
126 
128 

130 

131 

132 
132 
132 
132 





















CONTENTS. xi 

Mood Notions, . . . . . . . . .134 

Tense ,, 135 

Examples of Tense Sequence, ....... 136 

Syntax of the Complex Sentence, . . . . . .137 

Different Kinds of Clauses, . . , . . . .137 

Mood of Dependent Verbs, ....... 144 

Oratio Obliqua, ......... 146 

Moods in Adjective and Adverb Clauses, . . . . .150 

Comparative Clauses, . . . . . . . .154 

Time Clauses, . . . . . . . . . .154 

Concessive Clauses, . . . . . . . . .156 

The Compound Sentence, . . . . . . .158 

Synopsis of Mood Constructions, . . . . . .158 

Appendices. 

Form for Analysis of Sentences, . . . . . .161 

The Alphabet,.......... 167 

Roots and Stems, . . . . . . . • .169 

Latin Numeration, . . . . . . . . .174 

Roman Measures of Time, . . . . . . .175 

,, Money and Weights, . . . . . . .178 

,, Measures of Length, . . . . • • .180 

,, ,, Capacity,.180 

,, Names, . . . • • • • • . 181 • 

Prosody, . . . . . • • • • • .182 

Figures of Speech, . . . . . • • • .184 

Abbreviations used in Latin, . . . . . • .189 

Periods of Latin Literature,. I 9 ° 

Index,. I 9 I 
















ERRATA. 


Par. 

208. For “ urbi Galliae,” read “ urbs Galliae.” 

265 a. For “ He says that he loves his brother, which brother,” 
&c., read “ He says that his brother is sick, which 
brother,” &c. 

276. For “quod tyranum esset,” read “quod tyrannus esset.” 

283# (2). For “ I should be mad,” read “ I should tell a lie.” 











STONYHURST 


I 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 

- -»- 

PART I. 

INTRODUCTION. 


WORDS AND SENTENCES. 

1. A word is a letter or combination of letters convey¬ 
ing a meaning— 

Man, good, I, run, quickly, from, O ! 

N.B. — Different peoples often convey the same 
meaning by words altogether different— 

Man, vir, avrjp. Run, currere, rpex^iu. 

2. A sentence is a word or combination of words in 
which something is said about something {se?ite?itia - a 
judgment)— 

The man runs ; the boy is diligent ; the horse will be sold. 

3. A complete sentence must therefore contain two 
parts—one naming the thing spoken of, the other saying 
something about it. 

A 




2 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[4-7* 


4. Words which name things are Nouns or Nouns Sub¬ 
stantive (nomen = a name) — 

Shakespeare, statue, stone. 

5. Words which say something are Verbs (verbinn — a 

word)— 

Run, write, raise. 

6. Every complete sentence must contain a noun, or 
something equivalent to a noun, naming the thing spoken 
of. 

This is called the Subject. 

7. Every complete sentence must also contain a verb 
saying something about the subject. 

What is said about the subject is called the Predicate. 
N.B. —(1) Something may be said in three ways— 

(a) As a statement— 

The boy learns his lesson. 

The subject is the thing spoken about— 

The boy. 

The predicate what is stated about it— 

Learns his lesson. 

(b) As a question— 

Does he learn his lesson ? 

The subject is the thing asked about — 

He. 

The predicate what is asked about it— 

Does learn his lesson ? 

(c) As a command— 

Learn you your lesson. 

The subject is that which is told to do some¬ 
thing— 

You. 


8 .] WORDS AND SENTENCES. 3 

The predicate is that which the subject is told 
to do— 

Learn your lesson. 

N.B. —(2) A sentence as spoken or written may be 
incomplete—that is, the subject or predicate may 
not be expressed by any word, the mind of the 
hearer being left to supply it— 

“ Go ! ” = go you. 

‘ ‘ You said so. ” “ I ? ” — I said so ? 

“ Heads or Tails?” = do you guess “ Heads,” or do 
you guess “ Tails ” ? 

This is often the case in commands where the 
subject is unmistakable. 

Words, the sense of which is left to be supplied 
by the mind, are said to be understood. 

N.B. — ( 3 ) A phrase is a combination of words con¬ 
veying some meaning but not saying anything, 
and therefore not forming a sentence— 

Once upon a time ; playing fast and loose ; three acres 
and a cow. 

8 . Summary— 

(1) A word is a letter or combination of letters con¬ 

veying a meaning. 

(2) A sentence is a word or combination of words 

saying something about something. 

( 3 ) A noun is a word which is the name of something. 

(4) A verb is a word which says something. 

(5) The subject of a sentence is the thing spoken of. 

(6) The predicate is that which is said of the subject. 

(7) The subject must be a noun, or the equivalent of 

a noun. 

(8) The predicate must contain a verb. 


4 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[9-12. 


PARTS OF SPEECH. 

9 . Speech, or Language, is made up of sentences. The 
different kinds of words which help to make up sentences 
are called Parts of Speech. 

10 . Only two parts of speech are essential to a sentence: 
the noun for the subject, and the verb for the predicate. 

11. Other parts of speech have various uses— 

(a) Taking the place of nouns. 

(b) Adding something to the meaning of nouns or of 

verbs. 

(< c) Joining words together. 

N.B .—(1) When one word adds something to the 
meaning of another, it is said to qualify it. 

NB .—(2) Some words, as will be seen later, qualify 
nouns and verbs indirectly , by qualifying the words 
which qualify them— 

He is very good ; he writes very well. 

N.B. —(3) A word qualifying a noun shows some¬ 
thing about the thing named — 

A good man. 

A word qualifying a verb shows something 
about the thing done — 

He writes well. 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

12. Nouns are Proper or Common. 

(a) A proper noun names an individual person or 
thing (proprium — one’s own)— 

Caesar, Thames, John. 


I 3 _I 5-] 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 


5 


(b) A common noun names a class of things (commune 

— shared by several)— 

Man, river, gold. 

13. A noun may in number be Singular or Plural. 

(a) It is singular if it names one thing— 

Frenchman, soldier, steel. 

{b) Plural if it names more than one — 

Frenchmen, soldiers, swords. 

> 

N.B. —In Greek and some other languages there is 
also a dual number, naming two things, the plural 
belonging to more than two. 

14. Nouns may in gender be Masculine ( male ), Feminine 

{female), or Neuter {neither). 

N.B. —In English the gender of a word follows the 
sex of the thing named. Nouns naming male 
things are masculine, naming female things fem¬ 
inine, naming things without life neuter. If we 
personify a thing without life {i.e., consider it as a 
person), its name becomes masculine or feminine ; 
as when we say of the sun, he shines; or of a ship, 
she sails. In Latin, and most languages, the 
nouns themselves are treated as things, and have 
a gender of their own, which frequently does not 
correspond to the sex of the thing. 

15. Words which take the place of nouns are called Pro¬ 
nouns or Substantive Pronouns {pro nomine = for a noun)— 

He made us— i.e., God made men. 

Cassius will free himself = Cassius will free Cassius. 

N.B. —Such words alone are really pronouns , and 
should so be called. In future, when nouns are 
spoken of, substantive pronouns are to be included. 


6 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[16-20. 


16. Words which represent the person speaking are said 
to be of the First Person. 

Those which represent the person spoken to are of 
the Second Person. 

Those which represent the person or thing spoken of 
are of the Third Person— 

1st person, I, we, myself, ourselves. 

2d person, thou, you, thyself, yourselves. 

3d person, he, she, it, they, himself, herself, itself, 
themselves. 

17. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns they 
represent. 

18. Summary— 

(1) A proper noun names an individual, a common 

noun a class. 

(2) The singular number denotes one, the plural more 

than one. 

(3) Nouns may, in Gender, be Masculine, Feminine, 

or Neuter. 

(4) A Pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 

noun. 

(5) The 1st Person speaks, the 2d is spoken to, the 

3d spoken of. 

(6) A pronoun is of the gender of the noun it repre¬ 

sents. 

VERBS AND COMPLEMENTS. 

19. A verb is of the same Person and Number as its 
Subject— 

I am ; he is ; we are. 

20 . Only those verbs which by themselves express a com¬ 
plete meaning can by themselves form a Predicate— 

I walk. Did you speak ? Stay ! 


21 -24.] 


VERBS AND COMPLEMENTS. 


7 


21 . Some verbs express no complete meaning without 
the addition of another word. Such other word is called 
their Complement ( complementum = a completion). 

22. Copulative verbs join to their subject another word 
to qualify it. This other word is their complement 

(copulare = to couple)— 

Caesar was made Consul; the earth is the Lord’s; he became 
famous. 

NB .—The same verb may be used without a com¬ 
plement or with one, with difference of force— 

God is [— exists); God is good. 

23. Verbs expressing an action which passes from the 
subject to something else require a noun to name that 
thing. This is called their Object {objectum — that exposed 
to the action)— 

( 1 ) The Direct Object of a verb denotes that upon 
which the action falls— 

Brutus killed Caesar ; you wrote a letter ; flattery does 

harm. 

(2) The Indirect Object of a verb or other word 
denotes the term to which an action or quality 
has reference— 

You wrote a letter to the papers ; flattery does you harm; 
he is like me. 

JSf.B .—The relation of the direct object to the verb 
taking it is passive (see 62)— 

I give a book a book is given. 

The relation of the indirect object to the word taking 
it is not passive— 

I give you a book .*. you receive it. 

He is like me I am like him. 

24. Verbs with a direct object are Transitive. 

Verbs with no direct object are Intransitive ( transire 
= to pass over). 


8 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[25-28. 


25. Words with an indirect object are Trajective 

(trajicere - to throw across). 

26. Factitive verbs join with their direct object another 
word to qualify it {facere = to make)— 

They made Cccsar Dictator ; the Britons painted themselves blue ; 
he calls the book his. 

27. Auxiliary verbs are joined to parts of other verbs 
to assist in marking change of meaning ( auxilium - a 
help)— 

I was writing ; I may write. 

N.B .—(1) The same verb may sometimes be used 
either as an auxiliary and independently— 

He did sigh ; he did the work. 

N.B .—(2) For Modal Verbs and their Complement, 
see 73 N.B. 

28. Summary— 

( 1 ) Verbs not making complete sense require a com¬ 

plement. 

(2) Copulative verbs predicate of their subject another 

word which is their complement. 

( 3 ) The Object of a verb is that to which its action 

passes. 

( 4 ) The Direct Object is that upon which the action 

directly falls. 

(5) The Indirect Object denotes the term to which an 

action or quality has reference. 

( 6 ) Verbs with a direct object are Transitive, with 

none Intransitive. 

( 7 ) Verbs with an indirect object are Trajective. 

(8) Factitive Verbs predicate of their object another 

word. 


29-32.] 


ADJECTIVES. 


9 


ADJECTIVES ( adjectivum - added on). 

29. Adjectives are words which qualify nouns— 

A black horse ; the three kingdoms ; my book. 

N.B. —Adjectives are sometimes called nouns adjec¬ 
tive. It is better to keep the name of nouns for 
nouns substantive , which alone name things. 

30 . Adjectives qualify nouns in two ways— 

(1) Describing the thing named {Descriptive adjectives). 

(2) Explaining what thing is named {Determinative 

adjectives). 

31 . Descriptive adjectives show what the thing is— 

(1) In quality {Adjectives of quality )— 

A good man ; a large house; red and white roses. 

(2) In quantity {Numerals) — 

Four fingers and a thumb ; half an hour. 

32 . Determinative adjectives show— 

(1) Whose the thing is {Possessives) — 

My book ; the Tuscan army. 

(2) Which the thing is— 

{a) Demonstratives point the thing out {demon- 
strare — to point out)— 

That man ; this book ; these things. 

{b) Relatives point to a preceding noun which 
they connect with a new predicate. The 
preceding noun is the antecedent {relation a 
reference; a?itecedere — to go before)— 

The man whom I saw ; the house that Jack built. 

{c) Indefinites specify vaguely, pointing out 
nothing in particular— 

Each and all; some one or other ; for aught I know. 


10 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 33 - 36 . 


(, d ) Interrogatives ask to have a thing or some¬ 
thing about it named— 

What is this? Gold. Whose is it? Mine. 

NB. — Demonstratives , Relatives , Indefinites, and 
Interrogatives, are often used alone, as if they 
were nouns. 

It is important to remember that their nature is 
adjectival, and that the same meaning can be 
always expressed using a noun— 

The house which house Jack built; whose gold is 
it? 

33. A word qualifying a noun may be an attribute or 
a predicate. 

It is an attribute if joined to the noun directly, a 
predicate if joined by a verb— 

The consul Aulus ; Aulus was dictator ; he bought the red 
cloth ; he dyed the cloth red. 

34. Summary— 

(1) Adjectives are words which qualify nouns. 

(2) An adjective joined directly to a noun is an attri¬ 

bute; joined by a verb, a predicate. 


ADVERBS. 

35. Adverbs are words which qualify verbs, adjectives, 
or other adverbs. 

36. Adverbs do for verbs what adjectives do for nouns, 
and are, like adjectives, descriptive or determinative. 

Descriptive adverbs — 

( 1 ) Adverbs of Quality add circumstances of time, 
place, or manner— 

He will come soon ; Caesar marched forth ; the boy 
writes well. 


37 - 39*1 


ADVERBS. 


11 

( 2 ) Numeral adverbs add circumstances of number— 

The cock crew twice. 

Determinative adverbs — 

( 3 ) Demonstrative adverbs point to a particular 
circumstance— 

I was happy then ; there did he die ; so did he speak. 

( 4 ) Relative adverbs, like relative adjectives, 
point to an antecedent, and connect it with a 
new predicate— 

I was happy then when you knew me ; there did he die 
where he had lived ; so did he speak as I have said. 

( 5 ) Indefinite adverbs specify circumstances 
vaguely— 

He got through somehow ; somewhere or other. 

(6) Interrogative adverbs, like interrogative adjec¬ 
tives, ask for instead of giving information— 

When did he come ? how goes the world ? 

37. Connective adverbs qualify words in two sentences, 
showing connection between them— 

If you say so you are wrong ; when he came I saw him ; 
he did as he was bid. 

N.B .—Relative adverbs are always connective. 

38. Relative adjectives and adverbs correspond to 
Demonstratives— 

He—who ; such—as ; then—when. 

Such pairs of words in correspondence are called 

Correlatives. 

39. Adverbs also qualify adjectives and adverbs derived 
from them— 

A very good man ; exceedingly well done. 


12 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[40-42. 


40. Summary— 

(1) Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 

(2) Connective adverbs qualify and connect two sen¬ 

tences. 

(3) Relative adverbs refer to an antecedent, and are 

connective. 

(4) Relatives and Demonstratives are correlative. 

CASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 

41. A noun, besides being the subject of a sentence, serves 
to complete the sense of other words. 

(1) It may be joined to another noun naming the same 
thing— 

(a) As an attribute— 

The consul Aulus. 

(b) As a predicate— 

Aulus was dictator. 

(2) It may be joined to a transitive verb as direct 
object— 

You write a letter. 

(3) It may be joined to a trajective word as indirect 
object— 

You wrote me a letter. 

(4) It may qualify another noun naming a different 
thing, like an adjective— 

Hearts of oak ; Csesar’s funeral. 

(5) It ma y qualify a verb or adjective like an adverb— 

Go with speed; he died in the Senate-House; learned in 
the law. 

42. According to the different parts which a noun thus 
plays in a sentence, it is said to be in a different Case. 


43-45-] 


CASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 


13 


A case is therefore a bit of a thought which fills up a 
gap in the sense which another word has left in¬ 
complete. 

43. Cases are marked by inflexion when the form of the 
word is itself changed to indicate change of its force— 

The Lord’s day. 

N.B .—In English nouns the above is the only case, 
used to qualify another noun, and it is used in 
the sense of possession only. 

Among pronouns there is also an object case , which 
is the same for direct and indirect object— 

I honour him ; give him a statue. 

44. Cases may also be formed by the use of Prepositions, 
which are words joined to nouns, and showing their rela¬ 
tion to other words (prcepositio = a putting before)— 

The army of the king ( = the king’s army); a crown of gold 
( = a golden crown); faithful and just to me. 

N.B. — (a) Prepositions are in fact loose case forms 
put before nouns to supply the want of case 
inflexions. 

Cases supplied by the aid of prepositions are called 
syntactical cases (syntaxis = an arranging together); 
cases formed by inflexion are called inflexional 
(inflexio — a bending). 

(b) Some cases are no longer living—that is, they 
have broken off from the original noun, and 
formed adjectives: thus, his from he; mine 
from me; and probably wooden from wood. 

45. Summary— 

(1) A noun may qualify another noun, a verb, or an 

adjective. 

(2) Inflexion is change of form to indicate change of 

force. 


14 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[46-48. 


(3) An inflexional case is an inflexion of a noun show¬ 

ing what it qualifies. 

(4) Prepositions are words prefixed to nouns, and 

showing what they qualify. 


CONJUNCTIONS (conjunction a joining). 

46. Conjunctions are words which join words, phrases, 
or sentences, without affecting their several sense— 

Once or twice; early to bed and early to rise; I neither 
praise nor blame. 

N.B. —Distinguish conjunctions which join words 
from connective adverbs which connect actions. 

47. Summary of the parts of speech— 

(1) A noun names something. 

(2) A verb says something. 

(3) A pronoun stands for a noun. 

(4) An adjective qualifies a noun. 

( 5 ) An adverb qualifies a verb, adjective, or other 

adverb. 

(6) A preposition shows the relation of a noun to 

other words. 

( 7 ) A conjunction joins words, phrases, or sentences. 

48. Besides these parts of speech there are Interjections 
{inierjectio — a throwing in), which are words thrown into a 
sentence without affecting its construction, and therefore 
not parts of speech— 

Alack ! ’tis he ! 

A noun may be so used, and is then said to be 
vocative [vocare — to call). 

Ho! Lictors ! clear the Forum; help me, Cassius; 
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 


49 " 5 2 *] 


SIMPLE SENTENCE. 


15 


ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

49. To analyse a sentence ( a) Subject must be distin¬ 
guished from predicate. (/?) The relation of other words 
to subject or predicate must be shown. 

50 . Words which add to the sense of a sentence but are 
not essential to it are enlargements of subject or predicate. 

(Unenlarged)—The bird sat. 

(Enlarged)— Yesterday, the bird of night did sit, even at noon, 
upon the market-place, hooting and shrieking. 

51 . The elements which make up a sentence are to be 
classified as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

As nouns if they are the subject or object of a verb. 

As verbs if they say something. 

As adjectives if they qualify a noun. 

As adverbs if they qualify a verb, adjective, or adverb. 

Noun. To err is human, to forgive divine. 

Adjective. An army of a hundred thousand men. 

Adverb. He went in haste. 

N.B. —(1) Prepositions do not qualify nouns, but 
show what the nouns qualify. They are taken as 
part of the noun to which they are prefixed. 

N.B. —(2) Conjunctions not qualifying anything do 
not enter into analysis. Neither do interjections 
or vocatives. 

Ig 5 gr See Analysis Table, Appendix A, for the method of 
distinguishing the different parts of a sentence. 

SENTENCES: SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND. 

52 . A sentence containing but one subject and one pre¬ 
dicate is a Simple sentence— 

This man’s brow like to a title-leaf 
Foretells the nature of a tragic volume. 

With many a weary step and many a groan, 

Up a high hill he heaved a huge round stone. 


1 6 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 53 - 57 * 


53 . A sentence containing more than one subject and 
predicate combined together is Complex or Compound— 

(1) Complex if the various subjects and predicates can¬ 
not stand alone— 

The man that once did sell the lion’s skin, while the beast 

lived, ', was killed in hunting him. 

( 2 ) Compound if the various subjects and predicates 
are joined by conjunctions, but make sense inde¬ 
pendently— 

Horses did neigh, and dying men did groan, and ghosts • 
did shriek and squeal about the streets. 

N.B. —When various subjects and predicates are 
combined so as to form a complex or compound 
sentence, each subject, with its predicate, forms a 

clause. 

54 . A clause which makes no complete sense except 
through a verb not belonging to itself is called a Sub¬ 
ordinate clause. 

55. A complex sentence is one containing a subordinate 
clause. 

56 . Subordinate clauses, like words or phrases in a simple 
sentence, act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in the sen¬ 
tence which contains them— 

(Noun) — That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

(Adjective) —The man that hath no music in himself is fit for 
treasons. 

(Adverb)— When beggars die there are no comets seen. 

N.B. —The clause on which another depends for its 
sense is called its Principal clause. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

57 . The clauses of a compound sentence are called Co- 


COMPARISON. 


58-59-] 


17 


ordinate clauses. They are analysed like simple sen¬ 
tences— 

Masters teach and boys are taught. 

N.B. —(1) The subject or predicate alone may be 
compound— 

Jack and Jill went up the hill; he loved his brothers 
and sisters; come and see. 

N.B. —(2) Clauses joined by conjunctions may them¬ 
selves be complex sentences— 

Thrice is he armed, that hath his quarrel just ; 

And he but naked, though locked up in steel, 

Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 

58. Summary— 

(1) A Simple Sentence contains but one subject and 

predicate making complete sense of themselves. 

(2) A Subordinate Clause consists of a subject and 

predicate not making complete sense unless 
joined to another verb. 

(3) A Complex Sentence is one containing a subor¬ 

dinate clause. 

(4) Subordinate clauses act as nouns, adjectives, or 

adverbs in the sentence which contains them. 

(5) A Co-ordinate Clause consists of a subject and 

predicate making complete sense alone, but 
joined to another by a conjunction. 

(6) A Compound Sentence is one containing co-ordi¬ 

nate clauses. 


COMPARISON. 

59 . (1) Adjectives of quality, and adverbs derived from 
them, are compared to express degree. 

(2) There are three degrees of comparison: Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative— 

Strong, stronger, strongest. 

B 


18 LATIN GRAMMAR. [60-61. 

N.B. —(1) Besides the superlative of comparison 
there is an Absolute Superlative, indicating the 
existence of a quality in a very high degree— 

A most eloquent speech. 

N.B. —(2) Often with English adjectives, and gen¬ 
erally with adverbs, instead of inflecting the word 
itself, adverbs are used to indicate comparison— 

Fortunate, more fortunate, most fortunate. 

Strongly, more strongly, most strongly. 

N.B. —{3) The adverbs which qualify adjectives and 
adverbs are in fact loose comparison forms, as 
prepositions are loose case forms, and by means of 
them degrees of all sorts can be expressed— 

Very strong, too strong, less strong, pretty strong. 

It will do vastly well; this was the most unkindest 
cut of all. 

60 . Both comparative and superlative degrees require a 
complement, showing that with which comparison is made. 

( 1 ) The complement of the comparative is adverbial, 

qualifying the adjective— 

He is stronger than I — i.e., than I am strong. 

(2) The complement of the superlative is adjectival, 

qualifying a noun— 

The foremost man of all this world ; the noblest- 
minded Romans ; the noblest of the Romans. 

N.B. —The superlative, indicating that some member 
of a class excels the rest, requires an attribute 
specifying, or determining, that class. 

61 . Summary— 

(1) Adjectives and adverbs are inflected to denote 

degree. 

(2) There are three degrees of comparison : Positive, 

Comparative, and Superlative. 


62 - 65 .] 


THE VERB. 


19 


(3) Degree is also expressed by adverbs qualifying 

adjectives or adverbs. 

(4) The complement of the comparative degree is 

adverbial, of the superlative adjectival. 

THE VERB ( Voice). 

62. A verb stating that its subject does something is 

active. 

A verb stating that its subject has something done to it 
is passive— 

He struck the table ; was the table struck ? 

N.B. —The direct object of a transitive verb in the 
active is always the subject of the passive. 

None but transitive verbs can have a subject 
in the passive. 

FINITE AND INFINITE. 

63. A verb making a statement is Finite, because a state¬ 
ment must be directed to some particular point ( finitum = 
limited)— 

You wrong me ! 

64 . When action is expressed but no statement made, 
the verb is Infinite (or not finite)— 

To wrong me ; wronging me. 

65. The parts of the verb infinite are nouns or adjec¬ 
tives— > 

To err is human, to forgive divine; he seemed in running to 
devour the road.—Nouns. 

A hare running fast; a rolling stone; a tangled tale.—Adjectives. 

N.B. —(1) Such nouns and adjectives are called 
verbals. Like verbs, they may take an object 


20 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[66-68. 


direct or indirect, and they are qualified by ad¬ 
verbs— 

A boy studying Greek ; a boy studying hard. 

NB. — ( 2 ) English verbals in ing are sometimes 
nouns and sometimes adjectives. It is most im¬ 
portant to distinguish their true nature— 

I like playing (Noun); boys spend much time in playing 
cricket (Noun); a boy playing cricket (Adjective). 


MOODS ( modus = a manner). 

66 . A finite verb may state a thing in three ways— 

( 1 ) As an actual fact. 

(2) As some one’s idea. 

(3) As a command. 

He comes (fact). 

He might come (idea). 

Come here ! (command). 

NB. —The different modes in which a statement 
may be made constitute the Moods of a verb. 

67 . The Indicative Mood states things as facts; the 
Subjunctive as ideas; the Imperative commands. 

NB .—Under statements are here included ques¬ 
tions, which are indicative or subjunctive, accord¬ 
ing as facts or ideas are asked. 

Who brought the message? who would be a king? 


TENSES {tempus — time). 

68 . A statement must regard some tune , Past, Present, 
or Future. According to the time spoken of, the verb 
making the statement is in a Past, Present , or Future 

Tense. 


69-70.] 


TENSES. 


2 I 

N.B. —The time spoken of determines the nature 
of the tense. 

We can say— 

(a) An hour ago (or a year, or a minute) I wrote, was writing, 

had written, was about to write. 

These are all therefore past tenses. 

(b) At this moment I write, am writing, have written, am 

about to write. 

These are therefore present tenses. 

(c) An hour hence I shall write, shall be writing, shall have 

written, shall be about to write. 

These are therefore future tenses. 

69 . Past tenses can be qualified by adverbs of past time, 
present tenses by adverbs of present time, future tenses by 
adverbs of coming time. 

• N.B. — (a) The statement of an action, whether 
past, present, or future, may be— 

( 1 ) Definite, indicating its condition at the 

moment spoken of. 

(2) Indefinite or Aorist, indicating nothing 

but the fact of its occurrence. 

Yesterday I was reading Virgil [definite). 
Yesterday I read the newspaper ( indefinite ). 

(b) A definite statement may represent the action as 
being, at the time spoken of— 

( 1 ) Complete or perfect. 

(2) Incomplete or imperfect. 

(3) Prospective or still to come. 

70 . The following is a complete division of the tenses of 
a verb— 


22 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 71 - 73 - 


PAST. 




PRESENT. 




FUTURE. 




Definite. 

( Complete, I had written. 

< Incomplete, I was writing. 

Indefinite 

( Prospective, I was going to write. 
(Aorist), I wrote. 

Definite. 

( Complete, I have written. 

< Incomplete, I am writing. 

Indefinite 

( Prospective, I am going to write. 
(Aorist), I write. 

Definite. 

i Complete, I shall have written. 

< Incomplete, I shall be writing. 

Indefinite 

( Prospective, I shall be going to write 
(Aorist), I shall write. 


71. Present and future tenses are primary; past tenses 
are historic. 


72. (a) The verb infinite making no statement, and there¬ 
fore speaking of no time, has no true tenses. 

(b) It can, however, indicate whether the action it 
expresses be complete, incomplete, or prospective— 

To have written ; to be writing; to be about to write. 

Having written ; writing ; going to write. 

NB. —It is to be noted that these are not tenses, 
but can be used of any time; as, 

A year ago he was said to have finished, or to be 
finishing, or to be about to finish, his book. 

73. Difference of tense and mood in verbs is marked 
sometimes by inflexion, sometimes by the aid of auxiliary 
verbs; as, 

Inflexion.—Tense, I write, I wrote. 

Mood, It is, if it be. 

Auxiliaries.—Tense, I do believe, I believe. 

Mood, I believe, if I should believe. 

NB. — Besides auxiliaries, there are modal verbs, 
expressing not action, but the manner of action 


74-76.] AGREEMENT. 23 

(modus = a manner). These require an infinitive 
as their complement— 

I am wont to say ; I am forced to go. 

74. Verbs, Summary— 

(1) A verb is of the same person and number as its 

subject. 

( 2 ) A verb is in the active voice when it states that its 

subject does something; it is in the passive 
when it states that its subject has something 
done to it. 

(3) Those parts of a verb which make a statement are 

finite ; those which make no statement are in¬ 
finite. 

( 4 ) The indicative mood states things as facts, the sub¬ 

junctive as ideas, the imperative as commands. 

(5) The parts of the verb infinite are nouns or 

adjectives. 

(6) A verb is in a past, present, or future tense, ac¬ 

cording to the time of which it speaks. 

(7) Tenses, whether past, present, or future, may be 

definite or indefinite, and definite tenses may 
be complete, incomplete, or prospective. 

(8) Auxiliary verbs help to express mood and tense. 

(9) Modal verbs take an infinitive complement. 


AGKEEMENT. 

75. Words qualifying nouns belong to them, and there¬ 
fore partake of the nature of the noun qualified, so far as 
their own nature permits. 

76. Summary of Agreements— 

(1) An adjective agrees with the noun it qualifies in 
gender , number , and case. 


24 LATIN GRAMMAR. [77- 79 - 

(2) A noun qualifying another noun naming the same 

thing agrees with it in case. 

(3) A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and 

person. 

INFLEXION. 

N.B. —Inflexion is change of a word’s form to in¬ 
dicate change of force (43). 

77 . Summary of Inflexions— 

(1) Nouns may be inflected for number and case. 

(2) Adjectives for gender, number, case, degree. 

(3) Verbs for voice , mood, tense, person, number. 

(4) Adverbs for degree. 

NOTES. 

78 . For analysis, note that the pronouns “it” and 
“ there ” are in English often superfluous, and do not 
appear in analysis— 

It pleased you to say this = to say this pleased you. 

There lived a man = a man lived. 

79 . Although in different languages different words are 
used with the same meaning, yet in all languages the parts 
of speech are the same, and sentences are constructed on 
the same principles. 


[80-100.] 


PART 


II. 


LATIN ACCIDENCE. 

NOUNS. 


Case. 

101 . A Latin noun has six cases— 


Nom. as 

pn&, 

a ball. 

regina, 

a queen. 

Acc. ,, 

pilam, 

a ball. 

reginam, 

a qtteen. 

DAT. „ 

pilse, 

to a ball. 

reginse, 

to a queen. 

Gen. „ 

pilse, 

of a ball. 

reginse, 

of a queen. 

Abl. ,, 

pila, 

by a ball. 

regina, 

by a queen. 

Voc. „ 

pila, 

ball! or 0 ball / regina, 

queen! or 0 queen! 


N.B. —These six cases represent all the parts which 
a noun can play in a sentence. Thus, a noun is 
Nominative when the subject of a finite verb— 

The ball flies; the queen reigns: “the ball” = pila,; 
“the queen ” = regina. 

Accusative when the direct object of a verb— 

He throws a ball; we love the queen; “a /fo//” = pilam ; 
“the queen ” = reginam. 

Dative when indirect object— 

He gives the ball a blow : “ the ball ” = pilse ; he writes 
a letter to the queen: “to the queen ” = reginse. 



26 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ioi. 


Genitive when qualifying another noun naming a 
different thing— 

The queen's army ; the colour of the ball: “ the queen's " 
= reginse ; “ of the ball ” = pilae. 

Ablative when qualifying a verb— 

He plays with a ball; I was struck by a ball: “with a 
ballf “ by a &z//” = pila. 

N.B. —Any prepositions which make a noun qualify 
a verb, may in English represent the ablative — 

I am pale from fear ; I could not speak for shame. 

Vocative when used interjectionally (Int. § 48, note)— 
Queen of England, pardon me; “ queen " — regina. 

Locative case. —Nouns which name towns and small 
islands have also a case signifying at that place, 
which, like the ablative, qualifies verbs— 

Thus Roma = Rome, Romse = a/ Rome. 

A few other words have locatives, which will be treated 
under the declensions. 

N.B. — (a) In Latin there is no article, and there¬ 
fore, as is seen from the examples above, pila , 
regina , may mean a ball or the bally a queen or 
the queen. 

(b) These cases will, in what follows, be arranged 

thus— 

Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, 
Ablative. 

(c) The Accusative, Genitive, Dative, and Ablative, 

are called oblique cases. 


102-103.] 


NOUNS. 


27 


102 . Number. 

Latin nouns have two numbers, Singular and Plural, 
each with its own inflexions. The plural number has the 
same cases as the singular. 

Thus pila = a ball; pilse = balls. 


Nom. 

pilse, 

balls 

(the balls fly). 

Gen. 

pilarum, 

of balls 

{the size of the balls). 

Dat. 

pilis, 

to balls 

{hurtful to balls). 

Acc. 

pilas, 

balls 

{they threw the balls), 

Voc. 

pilse, 

balls /or 0 balls ! 

{fatal balls !) 

Abl. 

pilis, 

by (6r*c .) balls 

{cricket is played with 


103 . (1) All nouns are inflected for Number and Case 
according to one or other of five forms called Declensions. 
These are distinguished from one another by endings of the 
genitive singular and plural. 

( 2 ) In all the declensions, neuter nouns have the 

nominative, accusative, and vocative singular 
alike, and likewise the nominative, vocative, 
and accusative plural, and in the plural of 
neuters these three cases always end in a. 

(3) The mark if) over a vowel means that it is pro¬ 

nounced short; (-) that it is pronounced long; 
(~) or (z) that it is common— i.e., either long 
or short. 

(4) Cases are so named by grammarians because they 

were supposed to be the declension or falling 
away of the noun from its original form, the 
nominative, which therefore could not be called 
a case. They are really the forms which show 
the relation of a noun to other words. 


28 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[104-1040. 


104. FIRST DECLENSION. 

Nominative in &. 

Genitive singular in se. 

3 , plural in arum. 

Pila, a ball (f.). 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. pila piles 

Gen. piles • pilarum 

Dat. pilee pilis 

Acc. pilam pilas 

Voc. pila pilse 

Abl. pila pilis 

N.B. — Names of towns are sometimes singular, 
sometimes plural— 

Rome = Roma, genitive Romse. 

Athens — Athense, ,, Athenarum. 

The locative case singular is like the gen.— 

Romse — at Rome. 

The locative case plural is like the abl.— 

Athenis = at Athens. 


Notes on the First Declension. 

104 a .— (1) All words of this declension are feminine unless their 
meaning make them masculine or common —as in nauta [a sailor ), 
agricola (a husbandman). None are neuter. 

Also some names of rivers— Sequana {the Seine), Matrona {the 
Marne), and Hadria {the Adriatic Sea), are masculine. 

(2) Irregular cases— 

(0) Dea {goddess) and filia (0 daughter) have dative and ablative 
plural deabus, filiabus, to distinguish them from words of 
the 2d Declension. 


ios-] SECOND DECLENSION. 29 

N.B. —Also the adjectives duo = two, and ambo = both, make 
duabus and ambabus in the feminine. 

{b) Familia (a family) when combined with pater, mater, filius, 
filia, makes its genitive familias —as paterfamilias ( a father 
of a family) ; but it has also the ordinary form—as pater 
familise. 

(3) Locative— 

Militise = abroad (i.e., “ on service from militia = military ser¬ 
vice). 

(4) In the poets the genitive plural is sometimes in um instead of 

arum —as from ccelicola (a diveller in heaven), ccelicdlum for 
ccelicolarum. Amphorum (from amphdra, a wine-jar) and 
drachmum (from drachma, a drachma) are used in prose. 

(Cf. 105a, 5.) 

(5) In the older poets the gen. sing, is sometimes in ai —as aulai for 

aulse. 


105. SECOND DECLENSION. 

Nominative in er or ir, us or um. 

Genitive singular in i. 

„ plural in orum. 

Puer, a boy (m.); magister, a master (m.) ; dominus, a 
lord (m.); bellum, war (neut.)— 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

puer 

pueri 

magister 

magistri 

Gen. 

pueri 

puerorum 

magistri 

magistrorum 

Dat. 

puero 

pueris 

magistro 

magistris 

Acc. 

puerum 

pueros 

magistrum 

magistros 

Voc. 

puer 

pueri 

magister 

magistri 

Abl. 

puero 

pueris. 

magistro 

magistris 

Nom. 

dominus 

domini 

bellum 

bella 

Gen. 

domini 

dominorum 

belli 

bellorum 

Dat. 

domino 

dominis 

bello 

bellis 

Acc. 

dominum 

dominos 

bellum 

bella 

Voc. 

domine 

domini 

bellum 

bella 

Abl. 

domino 

dominis 

bello 

bellis 


30 


LATIN 

GRAMMAR. 

[105a. 

Vir, 

a man 

(m.), and Deus, God (m.), are thus declined— 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

vir 

viri 

deus 

dei, dii, or di 

Gen. 

viri 

virorum and vir dm dei 

deorum and dedm 

Dat. 

viro 

viris 

deo 

deis, diis, or dis 

Acc. 

virum 

viros 

deum 

deos 

Voc. 

vir 

viri 

deus 

dei, dii, or di 

Abl. 

viro 

viris 

deo 

deis, diis, or dis 


N.B.- 

-The locative 

singular is 

like the genitive; 


the locative plural like the ablative, as— 

(From Corinthus, -i) Corinthi = <^ Corinth. 
(From Philippi, -orum) Philippis = at Philippi. 


Notes on the Second Declension. 

105a. — (i) All words ending in urn are neuter. Also vulgus, a 
crowd; virus, poison; and pelagus, the sea. Other words of 
this declension are mostly masculine, a few feminine. 

(2) The vocative in e is a decayed form of the nominative in us. 

Nouns ending in -ius, as filius (a son), Horatius {Horatius), 
show the still further decayed form of the vocative 
singular in i, as fili, Horati. 

In all other Latin nouns the nominative and vocative have the 
same form. 

(3) Locatives.—humi = w the ground. 

belli = abroad (at the war). 

vesperi = atf evening (also vespere). 

domi = tf/ hotne. (See notes on 4th Declension.) 

(4) The nouns in er which, like puer, retain e in oblique cases, are 

socer, a father-in-law (m.); gener, a son-in-law (m.); Liber, 
the god Bacchus; and vesper, evening; all others like magister 
omit it. 

(5) The genitive plural is sometimes in um instead of orum (as 

in virdm). Thus, from faber, a smith, fabrdm for fabrorum. 
This is most usual in names of weights and measures, as 
nummum for nummorum, sestertium for sestertiorum, &c., 
and in names of peoples, as Argivum for Argivorum. 

(6) Horace and the older poets make the genitive singular of nouns 

in ius and ium in i (not ii), as ingeni for ingenii. Ovid 
and later writers use forms in ii. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 


31 


106.] 

106. THIRD DECLENSION. 

Of this declension there are two divisions— 

(1) Words with the same number of syllables in geni¬ 

tive singular as in nominative (parisyllabics). 

(2) Words with more in genitive than in nominative 

(imparisyllabics). 

I. Parisyllabics. 

Endings of nominative various. 

Genitive singular in is. 

„ plural in ium. 


Civis, a citizen (c.); mare, the sea (neuter). 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

civis 

cives 

mare 

maria 

Gen. 

civis 

civium 

maris 

marium 

Dat. 

civi 

civibus 

mari 

maribus 

Acc. 

civem 

cives 

mare 

maria 

Voc. 

civis 

cives 

mare 

maria 

Abl. 

cive 

civibus 

mari 

maribus 


II. Imparisyllabics. 

Endings of nominative various. 
Genitive singular in is. 

„ plural in um. 


Judex, a judge (m.)j leo, a lion (m.); nomen, a name 



(neuter). 





Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. judex 

judices 

leo 

leones 

nomen 

nomina 

Gen. judicis 

judicum 

leonis 

leonum 

nominis 

nominum 

Dat. judici 

judicibus 

leoni 

leonibus 

nomini 

nominibus 

Acc. judicem judices 

leonem leones 

nomen 

nomina 

Voc. judex 

judices 

leo 

leones 

nomen 

nomina 

Abl. judice 

judicibus 

leone 

leonibus 

nomine 

nominibus 


LATIN GRAMMAR. [io6«. 

JV.B .—Locatives in singular and plural like abla¬ 
tives— _ . 

(From Carthago, -inis) Carthagine = «/ Carthage. 

(From Sardes, -ium) Sardibus = at Sardis. 


lOGrr. Notes on the Third Declension. 


(i) There are no practical rules for gender. Particular words must 
be observed and remembered. 


(2) Locative— 

ruri = in the country. 


(3) Some parisyllabics make genitive plural in um, namely— 


pater, 

mater, 

frater, 

senex, 

juvenis, 


a father, m. 

apis, 

a bee, f. (also apium). 

a mother, f. 

panis, 

bread, m. 

a brother, m. 

canis, 

a dog, c. 

an old mail, m. 

vates, 

a prophet, c. 

a young man, m. 

proles, 

an offspring, f. 

accipiter, 

a hawk, 

m. 


(4) Some imparisyllabics make gen. plur. in ium —viz.: 
(a) Nouns of one syllable which have two consonants 
before the is of the genitive singular, as— 

Dens ( a tooth), pons (a bridge ), glans [an acorn). 

(fb) Neuters in al and ar, as— 

Animal [an animal), calcar [a spur), lacftnar [a 
ceiling). 

(c) Some individual words. The most important are— 

mas (maris), a male, m. faux (faucis), the throat, f. 

mus (muris), a mouse, c. nix (nivis), snow, f. 

vis, force, f. lis (litis), a lawsuit, f. 

(d) Less important words under this head are— 

dos (dotis), a dowry, f. glis (gliris), a dormouse, m. 

strix (strigis), a screech-owl, f. compes (compedis), a fetter, f. 
penates, household-gods, m. optimates, aristocrats , m. 

The last two being plural words, no singular forms 
are in use. 


THIRD DECLENSION. 


106 a.] 

9 + 


33 


( e) Vis, which in sing, means force and in plur. strength, is 
thus declined— 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

vis 

vires 

Gen. 

(none) 

virium 

Dat. 

(none) 

viribus 

Acc. 

vim 

vires 

Voc. 

(none) 

vires 

Abl. 

vi 

viribus 


(5) Nouns in as, gen. atis, have gen. plur. in um or ium, as— 

civitas ( a state). 

Also palus (paludis), a marsh ; servltus (servitutis), slavery. 

(6) Some nouns of 3d declension make acc. sing, in im. 

(a) Vis (force), acc., vim: tussis ( a cough), f. ; acc., tussim : 

sitis (thirst), f.; acc., sitim : cuchmis (a cucumber), f.; 
acc., cucumerim : amussis (a carpenter''s rule), f.; acc., 

amussim. 

(b) Names of rivers and towns in is, as— TibSris, m.; Hispalis, 

f. : acc., TibSrim, Hispalim. 


(7) Some make their acc. in em or im, as— 


turris (a tower), f. 
puppis (a ship's stern), f. 
pelvis (a basin), f. 
messis (a harvest), f. 


secitris (an axe), f. 
navis (a ship), f. 
restis (a rope), f. 
clavis (a key), f. 


(8) The ablative singular ends in i— 

(a) When the noun is a neuter in al, ar, or e. 


N.B.—But jubar (a ray), n., makes jubare. 

nectar (the drink of the gods), n., ,, nectare. 

far (grain), n., ,, farre. 


(b) When the acc. sing, is in im. 


(9) The abl. sing, is in e or i— 

(a) When the acc. is in em or im. 

N.B. —But always reste and securi. 

(b) In ignis (fire), m. 


(10) Nom. plur. of neuters is in ia when abl. sing, is in i. 

(11) The acc. plur. of parisyllabics is written es or is. 

N.B. —Both forms are contracted from eis. 


C 


34 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[io7-ic>7<7. 


(12) The following words have no gen. plur. in classical Latin— 

cor (the heart), n. sal (salt), m. 

cos (a whetstone), f. sol (the sun), m. 

rus (the country), n. vas (vadis), (a surety), m. 

daps (or dapis), a banquet, f. 


107. FOURTH DECLENSION. 


Nominative in us (rnasc. or fem.) and u (neuter). 
Genitive singular in us. 

„ plural in uum. 



Fructus 

, a fruit, m.; 

cornu, a 

horn. 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

fractals 

fructtls 

cornu 

cornua 

Gen. 

fructtls 

fructuum 

cornus 

cornuum 

Dat. 

fructui 

fructibus 

cornu 

cornibus 

Acc. 

fructum 

fructtls 

cornu 

cornua 

Voc. 

fractals 

fractals 

cornu 

cornua 

Abl. 

fructu 

fructibus 

cornu 

cornibus 


N.B .—The 4th Declension is a contracted variety 
of the 3d. Thus the gen. sing, was originally in is, 
as fructuis; the nom. plur. in es, as fructues. The 
contraction accounts for the quantity of the us. 


107 a. Notes on the Fourth Declension. 


(1) Nouns in us are generally masculine. 

(2) The dat. sing, of neuters always, and sometimes of others, is 

contracted from ui into u, as— 

cornu for cornui; equitatu for equitatui. 

(3) Some nouns make dat. and abl. plur. in ubus instead of ibus,— 

viz.: 


acus (a needle), m. 
lacus (a lake), m. 
specu (a cave), n. 
portus (a port), m. 
tribus (a tribe), f. 


arcus' (a bow), m. 
quercus (an oak), f. 
artus (a limb), m. 
partus (a birth), m. 
veru (a spit), n. 


108-109.] 


FIFTH DECLENSION. 


35 


(4) Domus [a house), f., is partly of 2d and partly of 4th declension. 

Plur. 


Sing. 

2d 4th 

Nom. domils 
Gen. domus 

Dat. domui 

Acc. domum 

Voc. domus 

Abl. domo 


2d 


4th 
domtis 

domorum or domuum 
domibus 

domos (rarely domtis) 
domtis 
domibus 

N.B. — Domi [at home) is the locative sing., not genitive. 


108. FIFTH DECLENSION. 

Nominative in es. 
Genitive sing, in ei. 

,, plur. in erum. 

Dies, a day , m. (f.) 


Sing. Plur. 

Nom. dies dies 

Gen. diei dierum 

Dat. diei diebus 

Acc. diem dies 

Voc. dies dies 

Abl. die diebus 


108#. Notes on the Fifth Declension. 

(1) All nouns of this declension are feminine except dies, which in 

the sing, is masculine, used of a fixed day sometimes feminine, 
• and in the plur. always masculine. 

(2) The gen., dat., and abl. plural are not used except in the words 

res (a thing), dies [a day), and species {an appearance). 

(3) Ei of the gen. and dat. sing, is sometimes contracted into e. 

109. Appendix to Nouns. 

( 1 ) Greek Nouns— 

(i) First Declension. Nominative in as, es, e. 


36 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[109. 


iEneas, m. ; Anchises, m. (proper names) ; epitome, 



an 

abridgment, f. 



Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Nom. 

iEneas 

Anchises 

Epitome 

Gen. 

JEnese 

Anchisse 

Epitomes 

Dat. 

iEnese 

Anchisse 

Epitomse 

Acc. 

iEneam or an 

Anchisen 

Epitomen 

Voc. 

AEnea 

Anchise or a 

Epitome 

Abl. 

^Enea 

Anchise or a 

Epitome 


N.B. — (a) The plur. inflexions are those of pila. 

(b) The terminations -ides,-ides, iades,-ades, mean 
u son of” (compare John.swz, Edwards, Mac¬ 
intosh, ( 9 ’Connor, Brown ing). Words so 

ending are patronymics. They usually form 
their gen. plur. in um instead of arum (cf. 
1st Declension), as— 

iEneades ( a son of Eneas'), Atrldes (a son of 
Atreus); gen. plur., ^Eneadum, Atridum. 

Feminine patronymics end in is, es, or ias. 

They belong to the 3d Declension, as— 

Tantalis (a daughter of Tantalus ), Nereis (a 
daughter of Nereus), Thestias (a daughter of 
Thestius). 

(ii) Second Declension — 

Greek words in os make acc. in on or um, as— 

Delos [the island Delos), f.; acc., Delon or Delum. 

(iii) Third Declension — 

(a) Greek nouns of this declension make acc. 

sing, in em or a, and acc. plur. generally 
in as, as— 

Crater [a mixing bowl), m.; acc. sing., craterem 
or cratera; acc. plur., crateras. 

(b) Achilles and Ulixes ( Ulysses) have genitives 


1 09-] APPENDIX TO NOUNS. 37 

Achillei and Ulixei, as if of 2d Declension. 
All other cases of 3d only. 

(c) Peleus (and the like) has gen. Peleos or Pelei, 
acc. Pelea, voc. Peleu. 

(2) Indeclinable nouns are— 

Fas (right), n .; nefas (wrong), n.; nihil (nothing), n. ; 
and nouns belonging to the verb infinite. 

(3) General miles for gender :— 

(i) Names of male things, peoples, winds, months, moun¬ 

tains, and rivers, are masculine. 

N.jB. — (a) The names of months are adjectives agree¬ 
ing with mensis. 

(h) Styx and Lethe, rivers of the lower world, are 
feminine. Also Alpes (the Alps), iEtna, and 
Ida, names of mountain-ranges. 

(c) Soracte (Mount Soracte) is neuter; also Gar- 
gara, and some others, plural. 

(ii) Names of female things, countries , cities, islands, 
plants, are feminine. 

N.B .— But ruhus (a bramble), dumus (a thorn-bush), 
calamus (a reed), carduus (a thistle), and a few 
others, are masculine. 

(iii) Indeclinable nouns are neuter. 

(4) Heteroclite nouns. Some nouns are heteroclite —that 

is, of different declension in different parts, as— 

Vas, vasis (a vessel), n. ; plural, vasa, vasorum. 

Jugerum, jugeri (an acre), n. ; plural, jugera, jugerum. 

Laurus (a laurel ), f. ; ficus (a fig-tree), f.; pinus (a 
pine-tree), f., which are of the 2d Declension, have 
some cases also of the 4th (pinus in the abb 
has pinu only). 

Colus (a distaff), f., is declined according to both 2d 
and 4th Declensions. 


38 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[109. 


Requies, -etis (rest), f., has also acc. and abl. of the 
5th Declension requiem and requie. 

(5) Heterogeneous nouns. Some nouns vary their gender 

in the plur., as— 

Locus (aplace), m. ; plural loci (m.), and loca (n.) 

Also— 

jocus ( a jest), m., plural joci, m., and joca, n. 

frenum {a bit), n., ,, freni, m., and frena, n. 

rastrum ( a harrow), n., ., rastri, m., and rastra, n. 

Tartarus [hell), m., ,, Tartara [the regions of hell), n. 

(6) Some nouns have no sing., as— 

Calendae [the calends), f.; idus [the ides), f. ; nonse [the 
nones), f. ; liberi [children), m. ; majores [ancestors), 
m. ; arma [arms), n. 

( 7 ) Irregular case formation— 

Jupiter or Juppiter [Jupiter); gen., Jovis. 
bos [ox), c.; gen., bovis ; gen. plur., bourn; dat. and abl., 
bobus or bubus. 

sus [sow), f.; gen., suis; dat. and abl. plur., suibus or 
subus. 

senex [old man), m. ; gen., senis. 
femur [thigh), n. ; gen., femoris or femlnis. 
supellex [furniture), f. ; gen., supellectilis. 
iter [journey), n. ; gen., itineris. 

jecur [liver), n. ; gen., jecoris or jecinoris, and jocinoris. 


(8) Some words have different meaning in singular and 
plural, as— 


sedes 

career 

castrum 

comitium 

copia 

finis 


Sing. 

[temple), f., 

[prison), m., 

[fort), n., 

[place of assembly), n., 
[plenty), {., 

[end), m., 


gratia [favour), f., 

impedimentum [hindrance), n., 


Plur. 

sedes [house). 

carceres [starting-post). 
castra [a camp). 

comitia [assembly). 

copiae [troops). 

fines ( boundaries, terri¬ 

tory). 

gratise [thanks). 

impedimenta [baggage). 


APPENDIX TO NOUNS. 


39 


109.] 


Sing. 

littera (letter of alphabet), f. , litterse 

opera {labour), f., operse 

(ops) opis {help), f., opes 

rostrum {beak), n., rostra 


Plur. 

{letter, epistle), 
{labourers), 
{wealth, power), 
{tribune, for pub¬ 
lic speaker). 


( 9 ) Nouns wanting some of their cases. 

N.B .—Nominatives not in use are in brackets, 
cases given are those in use. 


The 


[faux], f., 
fors, f., 

[prex], f., 


Abl. fauce, Plural in full, throat. 

Abl. forte, No plural, chance. 

Dat. preci, \ ^ CC ‘ P recem > l Plural in full, prayer. 

( Abl. prece, ) 

[sordes], f., Acc. sordem, Abl. sorde, Plural in full, dirt. 

[spons], f., Gen. spontis, Abl. sponte, No plural, one’s own will. 

[verber], n., Abl. verbere, Plural in full, lash. 


( 10 ) Nouns with more than one form- 


j- {deed). 


actum, -i, 
actus, -us, 
contagium, -ii, j {cmtagim)- 
contagio, -onis, J 
elephantus, -i, 
elephas, -antis, 
juventa, -se, 


j- {elephant). 

juventus, -tutis, J 0 OU ^ 1 )- 
luxuria, -se, 
luxuries, -i, 
materia, -se, 
materies, -ei, 
obsidium, -ii, 
obsidio, -onis, 

paupertas, -tatis,-) 

. . y {poverty). 

paupenes, -ei, J 

pecus, -Oris, n., j 
pecu (pi, -ua), n., J 

N.B. —pecus, -Mis, f. 


j- {licxury). 

\ {material, tim- 
J ber). 

| {siege). 


penus, -i, m., f., 
penum, -i, n., 
penus, -us, m., f., 
penus, -oris, n., 
plebs, plebis, 
plebes, -is, 
plebes, -ei, 
senecta, -se, 
senectus, -tdtis, 
tapes, -etis, f., 
tapete, -etis, n., 
tapetum, -i, n., 
tergum, -i, 
tergus, -6ris, 
vespgra, -se, f., 
vesper, -Sri, m., 
vesper, -eris, m., 


{food-store) 


{com?non 
people), f. 



a single beast. 


Adjectives— 

Wiarus, | {cheerful) ' 

hilaris, J 


exanimus, 

exanimis, 



40 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i io. 

There are several nouns of the 4th Declension found 
only in the abl. sing., such as jussu, injussu, natu, noctu, 
rogatu, &c. 

(n) Different kinds of nouns— 

(i) Diminutives indicate that a thing is small of its 
kind, as— 

vulpes, f. (a fox ); vulpecula, f. (a little fox). 

puer, m. (a boy); puerulus, m. (a small boy). 

(ii) Collectives are nouns which in the singular denote 
a collection of individuals, as— 

Multitude), f. (a crowd). 

(iii) Abstract nouns. A name given to anything con¬ 
sidered apart from the subject in which alone it 
can exist is an abstract noun, as— 

Bravery, hardness, politics. 

N.B. —There are brave men , but there is no such 
thing as bravery , apart from those who have this 
quality. So there is no such thing as politics apart 
from the men who do political work. 

Latin employs abstract nouns very sparingly, 
generally using a phrase or a clause instead— 

Politics = res publica ; politicians = qui in re 

publica versantur (men engaged in the state). 

110. ADJECTIVES. 

( 1 ) An adjective must be of the same gender, number, 
and case, as the noun it qualifies. 

Besides inflexions for case and number, adjectives have 
therefore inflexions for gender, as— 

Rex bonus (a good king) ; regina bona (a good queen) : 
regnum bonum (a good kingdom). 

Regis boni, reginae bonse, regni boni = of a good king, 
queen, kingdom, &c. 

N.B .—In Latin, put the adjective after the noun it 
qualifies. 


III-II 2 .] 


ADJECTIVES. 


41 


( 2 )— {ft) Some adjectives follow the inflexion of the 1st 
and 2d Declensions of nouns—viz., the 2d for 
their masc. and neut., and the 1st for their fem. 
(b) Some follow the 3d Declension for all genders. 

111. Adjectives of 1st and 2d Declension. 

Bonus, bona, bonum —good. 




Sing. 



Plur. 



Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

boni 

bonae 

boni 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Acc. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

bonos 

bonas 

bona 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Abl. 

So— 

bono 

bona 

bono 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 


tener, tenera, tenerum [delicate), like puer. 
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum ( beautiful), like magister. 

Ilia. Notes on Adjectives of the 1st and 2d Declensions. 

(1) The adjectives in er which, like tener, retain the e, are— 

asper {rough). liber [free). 

lacer {tattered). miser {wretched). 

prosper {prosperous). 

Ancl those of more than two syllables ending in fer and ger, as— 
Lucifer [light-bearing); armiger {bearing arms) : gen. Luciferi, 
armigeri. 

(2) Adjectives which have the mas. nom. in ius never contract their 

gen. to i. 

(3) In the gen. plur. numeral and compound adjectives take -urn for 

-orum— 

denum, from deni; magnanimum, from magnanimus. 

112. Adjectives of the 3d Declension. 

Adjectives of two terminations have the nom. sing. mas. 

and fem. alike, but differing from the neuter. 
Adjectives of one termination have the nom. sing, alike 
in all genders. 


42 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i 12. 


(i) Adjectives of two terminations— 


i 


Tristis 

(sad) ; melior (better). 




Sing. 



Plur. 



Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

tristis 

tristis 

triste 

tristes 

tristes 

tristia 

Gen. 

tristis 

tristis 

tristis 

tristium 

tristium 

tristium 

Dat. 

tristi 

tristi 

tristi 

tristibus 

tristibus 

tristibus 

Acc. 

tristem 

tristem 

triste 

tristes 

tristes 

tristia 

Voc. 

tristis 

tristis 

triste 

tristes 

tristes 

tristia 

Abl. 

tristi 

tristi 

tristi 

tristibus 

tristibus 

tristibus 


N.B.- 

—Adjectives like 

melior 

are Comparatives. 


(Int. § 59.) 







Sing. 



Plur. 



Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

melior 

melior 

melius 

meliore s 

meliores 

meliora 

Gen. 

melioris 

melioris 

melioris 

meliorum 

meliorum 

meliorum 

Dat. 

meliori 

meliori 

meliori 

melioribus melioribus melioribus 

Acc. 

meliorem meliorem 

melius 

meliores 

meliores 

meliora 

Voc. 

melior 

melior 

melius 

meliores 

meliores 

meliora 

Abl. 

meliore 

meliore 

meliore 

melioribus melioribus melioribus 


or i 

or i 

or i 





N.B .— Adjectives of the 3d Declension in er have 
another form in ris, rarely used in masculine, but 
always in feminine, as— 

Mas. acer or acris; fem. acris; neut. acre [sharp). 
September or -bris, -bris (no neuter); and other names 
of months. (See above, 109, 3, i.) 

(2) Adjectives of one termination— 

Felix (happy ); ingens (huge). 



Mas. 

Sing. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Plur. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

felix 

felix 

felix 

felices 

felices 

felicia 

Gen. 

felicis 

felicis 

felicis 

felicium 

felicium 

felicium 

Dat. 

felici 

felici 

felici 

felicibus 

felicibus 

felicibus 

Acc. 

felicem 

felicem 

felix 

felices 

felices 

felicia 

Voc. 

felix 

felix 

felix 

felices 

felices 

felicia 

Abl. 

felici 

felici 

felici 

felicibus 

felicibus 

felicibus 

rarely -e 

rarely -e 

rarely -e. 





II 2 < 2 -II 3 .] 


ADJECTIVES. 


43 


Sing. Plur. 

Mas. Fem. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut. 

Nom. ingens ingens ingens ingentes ingentes ingentia 

Gen. ingentis ingentis ingentis ingentium ingentium ingentium 

Dat. ingenti ingenti ingenti ingentibus ingentibus ingentibns 

Acc. ingentem ingentem ingens ingentes ingentes ingentia 

Voc. ingens ingens ingens ingentes ingentes ingentia 

Abl. ingente ingente ingente ingentibus ingentibus ingentibus 

or i or i or i 


112a. Notes on Adjectives of the 3d Declension. 

(1) The abl. sing, is always in i, when the nom. neut. is in e. 

(2) Participles (verbal adjectives) in ns make ablative in e, when used 

properly as participles, i when used as adjectives. 

N.B. —Thus in the ablative absolute, or when a participle takes 
a case after it, the ablative can be only in e. 

(3) The gen. plur. is in ium— 

(a) In all adjectives of two terminations except comparatives. 
(/;) In adjectives ending in x or in s preceded by any conso¬ 
nant but p, as— 

audax (bold) ; amans (loving) ; gen. plur. au- 
dacium, amantium ; but princeps (chief), 
gen. plur. principum. 

N.B. — Cselebs (unmarried) makes cselibum. 

(4) The poets sometimes contract gen. plur. of adjectives (and parti¬ 

ciples) in ns from ium to um. 

113. Comparison of Adjectives. 

Adjectives of quality are likewise inflected to denote 
degree. There are three degrees: Positive, Com¬ 
parative, and Superlative, as— 

durus (hard) ; durior (harder); durissimus (hardest). 

tristis (sad); tristior (sadder) ; tristissimus (saddest). 

(1) The comparative degree is formed from the posi- 


44 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[113a. 


tive by adding to the first case which ends in 
i, or for mas. and fem., and us for neut., as— 

tener (tender); gen. teneri comp, tenerior, tenerior, tenerius. 
pulcher [beautiful) „ pulchri ,, pulchrior, pulchrior, pul- 

chrius. 

felix {happy); dat. felici ,, felicior, felicior, felicius. 

(2)— (a) The superlative is generally formed by substi¬ 
tuting for the comparative termination, ssimus, 
ssima, ssimum, for mas., fem., and neut. re¬ 
spectively, as— 

felici-ssimus, felici-ssima, felici-ssimum {happiest). 

(b) Adjectives ending in er add rimus, rima, rimum 

to the nom. mas., as— 

tener, sup. tener-rimus, -a, -um. 

pulcher, ,, pulcher-rimus, -a, -um. 

acer, ,, acer-rimus, -a, -um. 

(c) Four adjectives in ilis, with their compounds, form 

their superlative in illimus, -a, -um, as— 

facilis {easy), sup. facillimus, -a, -um. 

humilis {lowly), ,, humillimus, -a, -um. 
similis {like), ,, simillimus, -a, -um. 

gracilis {slender), ,, gracillimus, -a, -um. 

and the compounds difficilis {difficult); dissimilis 
{unlike). 

N.B .—All comparatives are of the 3d Declension, 
making abl. sing, in e or i, and gen. plur. in um. 
All superlatives are of the 1st and 2d Declensions. 

113 a. Notes on Comparison. 

(1) The following adjectives are irregular in comparison :— 


bonus {good) 

melior 

optimus 

malus {bad) 

pejor 

pessimus 

magnus {great) 

major 

maximus 

parvus {small) 

minor 

minimus 

multus {much) 

plus {a) 

plurimus 




ADJECTIVES. 


45 


nequam (b) {wicked) 

nequior 

dives^ 

dis 

f divitior 
\ditior 

senex {old) 

senior 

juvenis {young) 

junior 

exterus {d) {outside) 

exterior 

inferus {e) {low) 

inferior 

superus (/) {high) 

superior 

posterus {next) (in time) 

posterior 


nequissimus 
j'divitissimus 
(ditissimus 
(natu maximus) (c) 
(natu minimus) (c) 
fex tremus 
textimus 
f infimus 
Jimus 
fsupremus 
^summus 
postremus 


The following have no adjective form in the positive :— 


(citra adverb —on this side) citerior 
(intra ,, = within) interior 

(ultra ,, = beyond) ulterior 

(prse prep. = before) prior 

(prope adverb = near) propior 

(potis, -used chiefly in com- ^ , . 

position = able) } pottor (better) 


citimus 
intimus 
ultimus 
primus {first) 
proximus 

potissimus {best) 


ocior ( quicker) ocissimus {quickest) 
deterior {worse) deterrimus {worst) 


N.B .— Such forms as melior and optimus are not formed from 
the positive, which they are used to compare, but from 
obsolete adjectives (adjectives no longer used). 

Similarly better and worse are not formed from good. 


( 2 ) Notes on Irregular Comparison. 

{a) Plus in sing, is used in neut. only; gen. pluris : in plur., 
nom., &c., plures, -a; gen. plurium ; dat. and abl. 
pluribus. 

{b) Nequam is indeclinable in the positive— 

Homo nequam, hominis nequam, &c. 

{c) Natu maximus —greatest in age, therefore eldest. 

Natu minimus = least in age, ,, youngest. 

(d) Exterus is used in plur. only, as— 

Exteri = foreign people. 

(e) Inferus. —The sing, is used only in geographical terms— 

Mare Inferum = the Lower Sea — i.e., the Tuscan Sea. 
Tlur., Inferi = the gods, etc., below. 


4 6 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 114-114a. 


(/) Superus.— Sing. : geographical, as— 

Mare superum = the Upper Sea — i.e., the Adriatic. 

Plur. superi = the gods, etc., above. 

(3) The comparative degree has the following meanings : 

(i) Properly comparative, as— 

Vilior auro [cheaper than gold). 

(ii) Possession of quality in considerable degree, as— 

Jam senior [somewhat aged ; older than common). 

(iii) Possession of quality in excessive degree, as— 

Loquacior [too talkative , more than should be). 

(4) Some adjectives form diminutives from the comparative, as— 

Duriusculus [a little hard). 

(5) If in the nom. of the positive a vowel precedes the final us, the 

comparison is effected, not by inflexion but by the use of 
magis [more) and maxime [most), as — 

Arduus [steep) ; magis arduus [steeper); maxime 
arduus [steepest). 

N.B .—qu = a single letter, sounded as in queen. 

Therefore antiquus [ancient), antiquior, antiquissimus 

and the like, have regular comparison. 

114. Comparison of Adverbs. 

Adverbs connected with adjectives of quality are also 
compared. (Int. § 59.) 

Their comparative is formed in ius like the neut. of the 
comp, adjective. Their superlative changes the us of 
the superlative into e, as— 

fortiter [bravely) from fortis [brave), comp, fortius sup. fortissime 
acriter [sharply) ,, acer [sharp), ,, acrius ,, accerime 

humiliter [lowlily) ,, humilis [lowly), ,, humilius ,, humillime 

114^. Notes on Comparison of Adverbs. 

The following adverbs are not regularly compared :— 


parum [too little), 

comp, minus 

sup. minime 

multum [much), 

,, plus 

,, plurimum 

magnopere [greatly), 

,, magis 

,, maxime 

diu [for a long time). 

,, diutius 

,, diutissime 

ssepe [often). 

,, ssepius 

,, ssepissime 


5 -J 


PRONOUNS. 


47 


115. PRONOUNS. 

■N.B. — (a) Those words alone are true pronouns 
which take the place of nouns. 

(b) Pronouns are of the ist, 2d, or 3d person, ac¬ 
cording as they represent the person speak¬ 
ing, spoken to, or spoken of. 

( 1 ) First person : Ego (7); nos (we). 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

ego 

nos 

Gen. 

mei 

f nostrum 
\nostri 

Dat. 

mihi 

nobis 

Acc. 

me 

nos 

Abl. 

me 

nobis 

N.B. — No Vocative. 


(2) Second person : 

Tu (thou) ; vos (you) 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

tu 

vos 

Gen. 

tui 

I'vestrum 
fvestri 

Dat. 

tibi 

vobis 

Acc. 

te 

vos 

Voc. 

tu 

vos 

Abl. 

te 

vobis 

( 3 ) Third person. 




N.B .—The thing spoken of is represented by a 
noun. But when the action of the subject affects 
itself, instead of repeating the noun a Reflexive 
pronoun is used. This is the only substantive 
pronoun of the person, and it can by its nature 
have none but oblique cases. 

Se (himself, herself, itself). 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Gen. 

sui 

sui 

Dat. 

sibi 

sibi 

Acc. 

se or sese 

se or sese ( themselves) 

Abl. 

se or sese 

se or sese 


48 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ii 5 < 7 -n 6 a. 


115a. Notes on Pronouns. 

(1) The acc. of ego and tu is used in exclamations like a voc., as— 

Me miserum (wretched me !) ; 0 te stolidum (0 thou 

blockhead !) 

N.B .—With the acc. the address is indirect, with the voc. 
direct. 

(2) Sometimes, especially in poetry, mihi is contracted into mi. 


116. DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

Possessives showing whose a thing is. 

N.B .—As being formed from the pronouns, these 
are called Possessive Pronouns. 

(a) 1st Person— 

Meus, mea, meum (my or mine). De¬ 
clined like bonus. 

Noster, nostra, nostrum (our or ours). 
Declined like pulcher. 

(b) 2d Person— 

Tuus, tua, tuum (thy or thine). De¬ 
clined like bonus. 

Vester, vestra, vestrum (your ox yours). 
Declined like pulcher. 

(c) 3d Person— 

Suus,sua, suum (his own, her own, its own, 
their ozvn). Declined like bonus. 

HQa. Notes on Possessives. 

(1) The voc. of meus is mi— 

Mi fili! (my son /), m. 

N.B. — But also meus— 

Sanguis meus! [my offspring 1 ), Virgil. 

(2) The possessives are the genitives of the Pronouns turned into 

adjectives. 


11 7-] PRONOUNS. 49 

They are used instead of the genitive proper in the sense of pos¬ 
session, as— 

Liber meus (my book),' instead of the book of me. 

(3) From noster and vester are formed— 

nostras, gen. nostratis — of our country. 
vestras ,, vestratis = of your country. 


117. Adjectives specifying which is the thing spoken of. 
Demonstratives— 

Hie (this near me). 

Iste (that near you). 

Ille (that one at a distance). 

Is (he). 

Ipse (he himself). 


Sing. Plur. 



Mas. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

hie 

haec 

hoc 

hi 

hse 

hsec 

Gen. 

hujus 

hujus 

hujus 

horum 

harum 

horum 

Dat. 

huic 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

Acc. 

hunc 

hanc 

hoc 

hos 

has 

hsec 

Abl. 

hoc 

hac 

hoc 

his 

his 

his 

Nom. 

iste 

ista 

istud 

isti 

istse 

ista 

Gen. 

istius 

istius 

istius 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

Dat. 

isti 

isti 

isti 

istis 

istis 

istis 

Acc. 

istum 

istam 

istud 

istos 

istas 

ista 

Abl. 

isto 

ista 

isto 

istis 

istis 

istis 

Ille, ilia, illud, like iste. 




Ipse, ipsa, ipsum like iste, 

except nom. and 

acc. sing. 

neut. 



Sing. 


• 

Plur. 



Mas. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Fem. Neut. 

Nom. is 

ea 

id 

! ei 

111 

ese 

ea 

Gen. ejus 

ejus 

ejus 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 





reis 

eis 

eis 

Dat. ei 

ei 

ei 


iis 

.. 





Ois 

IIS 

Acc. eum 

earn 

id 

eos 

eas 

ea 





reis 

eis 

eis 

Abl. eo 

ea 

eo 

liis 

iis 



D 






50 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i17^-118a. 


Idem (is + dem), the same , is thus declined :— 


Sing. 

Mas. Fem. Neut. 
Nom. Idem eadem Idem 
Gen. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem 
Dat. eidem eidem eidem 
Acc. eundem eandem idem 
Abl. eodem eadem eodem 


{ 

! 

{ 


Mas. 

eidem 

(iidem) 

eorundem 

eisdem 

isdem 

eosdem 

eisdem 

isdem 


Plur. 

Fem. 

eaedem 

earundem 

eisdem 

isdem 

easdem 

eisdem 

isdem 


Neut. 

eadem 

eorundem 

eisdem 

isdem 

eadem 

eisdem 

isdem 


117 a. Notes on Demonstratives. 

(1) The first syllable of the masc. Idem is long; of the neut. idem, 

short. 

(2) Istic (iste + ce) and illic (ille + ce) are used chiefly in the noin ., 

acc. y and abl. sing., and are declined like hie, but the neuter 
nom. and acc. is often istuc. 

The gen. (istiusce) and dat. (istice) are seldom used. 

N.B. —Ce is a demonstrative particle. Cf. ovroal, celui-ci. 

(3) From an old form ollus = ille, are found in Virgil dat. sing, and 

nom. plur. olli. 


118. RELATIVES. 

Qui, quae, quod, who or which. 



Mas. 

Sing. 

Fem. 

Nom. 

qui 

quae 

Gen. 

cujus 

cujus 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

Acc. 

quern 

quam 

Abl. 

quo 

qua 


118 * 7 . 


Neut. 

Mas. 

quod 

qui 

cujus 

quorum 
( quibus 

cui 

< queis 
( quis 

quod 

quos 
( quibus 

quo 

< queis 
( quis 


Notes on Relatives. 


Plur. 


Fem. 

Neut. 

quae 

quae 

quarum 

quorum 

quibus 

quibus 

queis 

queis 

quis 

quis 

quas 

quae 

quibus 

quibus 

queis 

queis 

quis 

quis 


(1) Other relatives are quicumque (or quicunque) and quisquis, 

both meaning whoever. 


1 19-120.] PRONOUNS. 51 

Quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, is declined like qui. 
Gen. cujuscumque, &c .; acc. quemcumque, &c. 

Quisquis has no fem., and is scarcely used except in the forms 
quisquis, quidquid (or quicquid), and quoquo. 

N.B. — Quisquis and quicumque being relatives , not interroga- 
lives, do not introduce indirect clauses (257). 

(2) There is an old form of the abl. qui, quo, or qua, which is used 
as an adverb, and appears likewise in composition in such 
words as quin (qui-ne, by which not). 


119. INTERROGATIVES. 

Quis ? or qui ? quae ? quid ? and quod ? (who ? which ? 
what?) is declined like the relative qui. 

N.B. — But dat. and abl. plur. quibus only. 

119 a. Notes on Interrogatives. 

(1) Qui and quod are used when the noun qualified is expressed ; 

quis (commonly) and quid (always) when the interrogative 
stands alone as if it were a noun , as— 

Quis es ? Homo. Qui homo ? 

Who art thou ? A man. What man ? 

(2) In its compounds quisnam or quinam, and ecquis or ecqui (fem. 

ecquae or ecqua), the interrogative is declined in the simple 
form. 

N.B .— The distinction between the forms quis and qui, quod 
and quid, holds also in these compounds. 


120. 


INDEFINITES. 


( 1 ) 

quis"| 
qui / 

aliquis 

Sing. 

qua 

aliqua 

jquid 

\quod 

raliquid 

(aliquod 

Plur. 

qui quae 

aliqui aliquae 

f qua 
Iquse 

aliqua 


Declined in other cases sing, and plur. as the relative. 

And the compounds quispiam, quique, quivis, quilibet, 


52 LATIN GRAMMAR. [120a. 

quidam, quisquam (gen. cujuspiam, cujusque, 

&c.) 

N.B .—Quisquam has no fem. and no plur. 

(2) Ullus, ulla, ullum; gen. ullius ; dat. ulli, — declined 
like ille. 


120#. Notes on Indefinites. 

(1) As with the interrogatives, quis and quid are used as nouns, qui 

and quod as adjectives. 

The same distinction holds in the compounds. 

(2) Aliqui is sometimes written for aliquis in the nom. sing. 

(3) The use of the various indefinites must be carefully observed. 

(a) Quisquam and ullus regard any single individual independ¬ 
ently of others = any solitary one— 

Estne quisquam omnium mortalium? (Is there any 

single mortal l) 

Procerior est quam amicorum quisquam. (He is taller 
than any of his fiends.) 

Quamdiu erit quisquam qui te defendat. (As long as 
you have one champion.) 

Negat se ullis legibus obtemperaturum. (He says he 
. will obey no law.) 

Precibus si flecteris ullis. (If there be any prayer that 
moves thee.) 

N.B. — (1) Therefore quisquam and ullus are used in 
tive sentences, where all are excluded. 

N.B.— (2) Quisquam is generally used alone, ullus with a noun. 

(b) Quivis and quilibet regard individuals collectively as equally 

sharing sotne property = any one taken at will (as a sample, 
all)— 

Quivis perspicere possit. (Any one could see.) 

Quavis ratione rem feceris. (Make money anyhow you 
choose.) 

Quselibet minima res. (Any trifling circumstance.) 
Procerior eo est amicorum quivis. (Any of his friends 
is taller than he .) 


I2i.] PRONOUNS. 53 

N.B. — (i) Therefore quivis or quilibet is used when all are 
included. 

N.B. — (2) Qui vis = whom you xvill. 

Qui libet = whom it pleases (you to take). 

(c) Quisque regards all individuals of a body, but each independ¬ 

ently of the others = each, one by one ; each and all— 

Quod cuique obtigit id quisque teneat. ( Let each hold 
to that which has fallen to his lot .) 

Tuorum quisque necessariorum. ( Each and all of your 
acquaintance .) 

Optimus quisque. (. Every good man —every man ac¬ 

cording to his goodness.) 

(d ) Quidam regards a particular individual, but does not specify 
him = a certain one— 

Quidam rhetor. {A certain rhetorician .) 

(e ) Aliquis regards no particular individual, but one vague and 

undefined— 

Aliquis philosophorum. ( Some one of the philosophers.) 

(f) Quis an< 3 quispiam are quite indefinite, and stand for a 
possibly existing person or thing, or one quite unknozvn to 
the speaker. 

Si quis dixerit. {If any one says.) 

Ne quis audeat. ( Let no one dare.) 

Quaeret quispiam. {. Somebody will ask.) 

Legio quaepiam. {Some legion or other.) 

N.B— Quis is used chiefly with num, ne, si, nisi, and relative 
adverbs. 


121. The following is a complete list of the adjectives of 

all kinds which, like ille, make gen. sing, in ins, and dat. 

• • 
in 1 — 


unus, one. 

alter, the other (of two). 

(another (of more than 
aIius - { two), 
ullus, any one. 
nullus, no one. 


r(interrog.) which ? (of 

uter? ( two), 
uterque, each (of two), 
neuter, neither. 
solus, alone. 
totus, whole. 


54 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[l22. 


122. CORRELATIVES. 

(i) A relative corresponds to a demonstrative which 
points out that to which the relative refers— 

Fecit is cui prodest. (.He to whose advantage it is has 
done it.) 

Idem est qui semper fecit. (He is the same as he ever 
was.) 

N.B. — Is and idem are the true correlatives of etui. 


(2) Besides the demonstratives and relatives already 
mentioned (determinative adjectives), there are 
others which refer not to the thing itself but to its 
quality or quantity. These are in like manner 
correlated. Their relative is in each case also 
used interrogatively. 

Such are— 


Demonstrative. Relative. 


Interrogative. 


talis (such). qualis (as). 

tantus (so great). quantus (as). 

tot (so many). quot (as). 


qualis ? (of what sort?) 
quantus? (howgreat?) 
quot? (how many?) 


N.B. — Tot and quot are indeclinable adjectives. 


(3) In like manner there are demonstrative and relative 
adverbs which are in like manner correlated; and 
the relatives are for the most part used also as 
interrogatives, as— 


Demonstrative. Relative. 


Interrogative. 


ibi 

eo 

inde 

ea 

turn 


(there). 

(thither). 

(thence). 

(by that way). 

(then). 


ubi (where). 
quo (whither). 
unde (whence). 
qua (by which way), 

f quum (when). 

( quando (when). 


ubi ? (where?) 

quo ? (whither?) 

unde ? (whence ?) 
qua ? (by which way ?) 

(Not used interrog.) 
quando? (when?) 


123 .] 


NUMERALS. 


55 


Demonstrative. 
toties {so often). 
tam {so or as). 



Relative. 

quoties {as). 
quam {as). 

ut {as). 


Interrogative. 
quoties? {how often?) 
quam? {how?) 

ut ? {hoiv?) 


N.B. — Tam...quam qualify adjectives. 

Ita ( or sic)...ut qualify verbs, as— 

Tam breves quam repentinoe. {As short as sudden.) 
Ita se gessit ut nocens haberetur. {He so bore him¬ 
self as to be held guilty.) 


(4) Demonstrative and relative adverbs are old case- 
forms of demonstrative and relative adjectives. 


123. NUMERALS. 

Cardinal numerals answer the question quot ? {how 
jjiajty ?) 

Ordinal numerals answer the question quotus ? (which 
in order?) 

Distributive numerals answer the question quoteni? 

{how many together ?) 

Multiplicative numerals answer the question quotu- 
plex? {how many fold?) 

Proportional numerals answer the question quotuplus ? 

{hoiu many times more?) 

Numeral adverbs answer the question quoties ? {how 

often ?) 


[Numerals. 


124. Numerals. 


56 


LATIN GRAMMAR 


[124. 


• * G 
o) o 
n vs 8 
« « « 
w 2 § 

p O'go.. 

22 § <-5 

-2-8 Si 

<< bJO^* 

S e ^ 

Ph .5 a; 

W 

i 1 § 

£ c O' 

^ rt 


C/3 

03 


C /3 

03 00 

«/ G 

• >—< 7" 77 


C /3 

<L> 


<L> 

2 C /5 
<u - a 

CO X> 


S s.s.s « 


gp * 

cr cr co co o ctj g g? 


C/3 

<u 

• rH 

03 

O c/3 

G3 03 

• »-h 

o 0 

3 03 
2 G3 

a 


CO . 

03 c /3 
03 c/3 


CO 

<1/ 


0.2 


o , 

. cu 

CO r -3 

<u £0 

t 8 

2 -g gj cx, 2 r g ‘o 

^ ^ (L) flj ^ H »H 

CT to CO r a P > 


CO 

0 

• i-H 

o 

• M 

> 

03 7! 

_ O 
03 T3 

G o 

a 

Tj 


03 .Si 

•r o 


o 

CO 


G CO 
03 O 

'z: 6 

g "S 
a +-> 


I* 

•“to <3 
Ed <u 5* 

> 3 *> 

" tfa 
H „, £ a.. 
D 03 ^ 


43 

.5 

*Xj 
o 
0 ) 
•r-i 
"O 

^ ^ ^ ri 

«s-9 

cu a! 

- - . „ c 

2'C « 

Q | 0 


g bf>~ 

h .S a 


3 

to 

cv 

C 3 


o 

<V 
nzJ 


G 

• M 
>1 
-*-» 

SG . <=> 

a •— 
tuo-g £ 
G .5 

• 1—1 . a/ 

CO rdJ 


G 

s 

-y g ■ 

W « rH 

G G 

cr cr 


G 

03 


G Cu *-! 

<U 0 / o 
co co O 


„ G 

•G 03 

• *-* G 1 - 7 —t 

G 03 ^ 
03 r3 -y 

G 'O O g 
03 G G 
G GG 


43 

^ ‘2 
•G <U 
S'P 
1) ._< 


G^ 


G C 

03 03 


03 

G3 


G 

to 

G 


G 

03 

03 


03 


rt .G 

G G 33 <13 ,g 5 
cr cr <0 co rj g 


3 > .G 
G 03 > *3 
DtJ m G 

S.O-G 8 


G 

03 

03 


03 

“O 

o 


> G3 


G 

03 

03 

• rH 

i-H ‘3 

-y G 

03 <JJ 
GS 03 

G '£ 

G 2 







.<0 

c 

k 

0 


’•*-3 

CAi 

s 

M 

0) 


p 

8 


co 

03 
> 
4-3 

U 
0 ) 

£ '^.So-'rt 

S C3 N . 

Z J3 ^ 5 «3 

S ^ CO 


■el 

QJ 

> •** 
> Vi 

C * 

C -4-3 

a o 


o 

<D 


"S* 

^1 


CO CO 

co G G co 


ci 


51 V 
1 - 0 > 
Oh co 
— G 

52 Tj 

2 G 

G G 

C 0 

o ^ 
Ph co 


CO 


CO 


CO CO 


co G G co H G 
G -r; -*-> 3 .G > 
!~! G G H-H 4-1 CCi 

r S3 - g x EGc-w 

S 22<u d 2 

-*-3 CT* CT^ C /3 C /3 O 


J5 .2 'o 'o .§ 

y 03 03 03 CJ 
g 03 G3 r G 03 

G ’o ^ co co ^ 

2 S' 3 ^ s53 2 

G .G 03 T3 .y vh c ri 
G uG O ti rt .G tJ 
O03CGGgg£ 
G G GG ii cTcTco 


G .G 


co 

G 



C 

O, 


a b 

^ s 

5 03 ^ .- 

G-G § ft 
H <13 

U U 

v D Ov 

I O' 

c3 


“ ^ ^ 2 

Q .** 2 0 

^ 7: g 
c-T ^ ^ ii 
8 <7 cd 

G G ^ G 


G -C5 


03 
G 
cr 
c 

g x P-y; 

D <u 03 


03 


GGcoioOGGG 


o 

G ^ G3 S 
'o .2 O 03 

S c 'o 03 03 G A 
S S 03 'G « *S g 
^ cj r rD O 1 0 cJ . r— 1 
O 03 


c 3 £ 




03 yi 
co ^3 


«? 00 
s 2 
o — 


II—It—<>—i H lyl K3 

1—11—iry’^Gs-*—13—1^1^ 

|-H 1—1 ^ c^> I—I i-rI 


X 


k 


HH ^^!> H LJLJ^ K> 

xc:C!> < ! 3 >-><x q 
3 fey 




hH kJ 
HH rN rS 

H H U 

>xd 

xx^ 

X 


> 


X 


> > 
X X 


u . 

G <33 

< U 

(X G 

<co 


i-h co on y- 00 vo txoo on o w 


n coy onoo r^oo on o >-< 00 on o 

I—1 I—< I—< I—1 HH HH P-H l-c C^ CO CO d CO 

















124.] 


NUMERALS: 


57 


co 

<U 


• CO 
co <v 
cj •«-< 

• ^ tjo 

Ms “ 


tn 

o 


in 

o 


o 

s 


_ _ c/3 

<D in <n <0 • — 
w u O bO -td 
C P 
o 
bO 


P 'E 


tr 2 u bo s ^ -g 

P G .5 .r t*. O w tn +-> 

i O* 3) 5 Tn w ° <U <u P 

5 -p x a ,-2 c c y ^ 

*"*. —*. (U flj UP G gj gj G 

ctctw w o c ^ o 


in 

<u 

• •»—« 

C/3 

CJ G 

cu 


fcjO 

G 


2J 3 
5 crtf 


p 

o 
o 
X o 
o u 
c/j in 


w . 

O in 

~ O 

P ’*3 
<U P 
exo o 
G bO; 
~ G : 

o o- 
o p 


CO 

<U 


in 

<U 

§ CO* 

c *U 

G a 
c/3 rG 
d> G 


co .*73 

<U r* 


-h w 

So 


.2 *s 

G D 
CO 


c/3 

O 


P c/3 
0) 
C/3 LP 

o _* 

■§°*s 

G c/3 

■G P 

CT o 


in 
• (U 

CO .H 

CU ZG 


£ CO 

<u 

CO -J- 

.2 G 

■p <u 

P CJ 

MS 

rs 

pp 


• pH G r-< 

G <U *S fi G 

| isps gpfis ® § ^§-s g j &' 

cr a- 1 


G 

U .1— 

3 PC p 

P dJ 


G 

O 

P 'p 

O . u 

bo o 


P P 


P 
<L> 
bO - G 
_, G G 

Set ^ 


u P •-- 

bo p 

C Mm 


rt 

'P LG 


•2 rt 


X OO P 7 G G 

(L) gj O O G qj <U 

w in O G P o cj 


X O 
CT CT w in 


G 

o 

G 


cd 

P ” 
GO P 
G .P 
33 O 


•p 8*s 


p 

•S c 
p o 
cro 


p 


* p 

p lg 

c rp 

CL) rj 

bo P 

5 P 

2 . p 
£T <u 

G ->-> 

■p s 

CP U 


p 


p 3 
LP cd 

• rH G 

G ^ 
G 4-» 

G 

2 cu 

G a 

G 

*G ^ 
G <U 


S s 

S’g 

co 77 

<u rG 


CO 

G 

s 

’co 

<u 

fcXI 

G 

G . 

G 

cr 


CO 


CO 

<u 


CO 
CO ^ 

CU 7h 

G 

p 6/3 

^ dJ rri 

S' b)0 § 
G rt P. 
P X O 
EL dj aj 

Cr w m 


in 

P 

P 


P P 

S .p 

1 s s 

2 pp 

OOP 
O P P 


m w 
<u ^ 


s s 


O 3 

s.§ 

C/) 
(U 


tn 

P 


m 

P 


m 

dJ 

4-* 

G 

O 

o 


S p‘ 

• P o 

wj tO 

iJ c 

G ’E 

dJ ^3 
p p. 
o P 
o cr 


P JP 

CL) c 

bO o 
P o 
P x 
=L ij 
CT w 


d) c/) 
4- 1 <D 

P -P 
aj P 
bo o 


in 

P 

35 S 


y) 

P 


G • rH 


G tO <L) w 
O P to Jd; J- 
(O’-E Cp S 
Vi o p S o 


.5 M 

co G 

^ s 

2 ^ 

co rG 
CU 7 

is 

f-s 

p dj 

cro 


o 3 

s 2 

P U 5 

xii 

dj rp 

‘ 5 o g 

p ^ 
G c/d 

^•2 
■p p 
B-i v 
cr o 


in 

0) 


CO 

cu 

• rH 
H—* 

G 

cu 


<U 

CJ 

co 


c° S 
2 ’8 
p dj 
cro 




G 

£ C 

.2 ‘to 

to P 
p p . 

it ^ 

7 3 

C 3 

P P 
cr cr 


c Q 


p p 

-«_) • rH 

P to 

P« rt 
bO G 
rt -■-> 
X P-, 
d) dJ 
in tn 


G P 
P dJ 
tC o 
cd <L) 
C O 
O P 
p p 


d> 

S S 


p p 

CL) dJ 


o o r C 


^'-2 C 

^ S .^r 

. - to-g ■ 

-)-> -G .P (L) 
G P u, ho 
O <U O a 

P <u G p 


cr cr 


<3 

*r 


G 

(U 

bo 


Oh 

u 

in 


G 

u 

bo 

G 

4—J 

a 

o 


.2 

G 


.3 s 


P U) P 


u 

to dJ 
p —, 
O -p 
p p 


cr g 

S 8 

p u 
cro 


cS 


p.S 


bo P 

§ s 

•2 £ 
cr o 


rt 


.3 2 

S 2 

£ 5 

p p 

*-• u 
P o 

bO S 

.2 ‘8 
P u 
cro 


i-3 

X 

k 

X 

X 

X 

X 


•-3 X X ,, 
h 3X g 

^ ^ £ £ 

X X JO 
X X y 
x XX 
J i-3 


uuuu^uuo 

U U(JU 

u . 


u 

CJ 

u 

u 


20000 o o 

= 


u 

k 

di 

rH 

xd 


o 

o 


n 

o 

)—H 

u 

u 

k 

d) 


O 

n 

o 

u 

u 

o 


r-i i^i 

^ h-3 

x M 


n 

n 

n 

n 

l-H 

u 

u 

u 

o 


o o o o o 

'J- LOdO t^OO 


OONO^OOOOOOOO 

OdON OOOOOOOOOO - 

H H N CO ^ xovo t^.00 ON O 


o o o o o o 

o o o o o o 

o o o o o o 

^ ^ o' o' o' cT 

*-« O O O 

HH LO O 


a, 


rv. 


fcJD 


cu 


CO 


p o P-Q3 

g sS 

^ x-Ph 'v X 














58 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[125. 


125. Declension of Numerals. 

( 1 ) Cardinal numerals — 

Unus, -a, -um, declined like ille : gen. unius ; dat. 
uni, &c. 

N.B. — Unus is used in the plur. with nouns which 
have a plur. form and sing, meaning, as— 

Unse litterse. (One letter) (epistle). 

Una castra. (One camp.) 



Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Mas. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

duo 

duse 

duo 

tres 

tres 

tria 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum 

trium 

trium 

trium 

Dat. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

tribus 

Acc. 

duos 

duas 

duo 

tres 

tres 

tria 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

tribus 


N.B. — Ambo, -se, - 0 , both , is declined like duo ; acc. mas. 
ambos or ambo. 

The other cardinal numerals from quatuor to centum 
are indeclinable. 

Ducenti, -se, -a, &c., declined like the plur. of bonus. 

Mille in sing, is indeclinable, and is used as an ad¬ 
jective or substantive. 

Millia (millium, millibus) in the plur. is declined, and 
is used as a noun only— 

Mille passus (one thousand paces—a mile). 

Mille hominum (a thousand men). 

Duo millia passuum (two thousands of paces). • 

(2) Ordinals and Distributive Numerals. 

These are declined like bonus, the distributives beine 
plural only. 

N.B. —But prior, the first of two, being a compara¬ 
tive, is of the 3d Declension. 

Alter, altera, alterum (the other of two ) has 
gen. alterius, dat. alteri. 


126 .] 


NUMERALS. 


59 


126. Notes on Numerals. 

(1) The distributives are often used as cardinal numbers with plural 

nouns, to denote several of the things whereof the plural noun 
names one, thus— 

Litterae = an epistle. 

Binae litterae = two epistles. 

(Duae litterae = two letters of the alphabet.) 

(2) Fractions are expressed by the ordinals with pars (sometimes 

understood), as— 

| = tertia pars; f = tres septimae. 

N.B .—But | and £ = duae partes and tres partes. 


(3) Fractions are likewise expressed by means of the divisions of the 
as, originally a pound of bronze , which was divided into 12 
unciae or ounces , thus— 


1 

TU 


= 

uncia 

gen. 

unciae 

(fern.) 



2 

1 ? 

(or i) 

= 

sextans 

3 3 

sextantis 

(mas.) 



3 

(or £) 

= 

quadrans 

3 3 

quadrantis 

( „ 

) 



4 

TF 

(or i) 

- 

triens 

3 3 

trientis 

( „ 

) 



5 

TS 


= 

quincunx 

33 

quincuncis 

( „ 

) 



6 

TU 

(or i) 

= 

semis 

33 

semissis 

( „ 

) 

sometimes indeclinable 

7 

TZ 


= 

septunx 

3 3 

septuncis 

( „ 

) 



8 

TS 

(or f) 

= 

bes 

3 3 

bessis 

( „ 

) 

( = 

binae partes assis) 

9 

ITS 

(or £) 

= 

dodrans 

33 

dodrantis 

( „ 

) 

( = 

de - quadrans = 1 —£ 

1 0 
1Z 

(or f) 

= 

dextans 

33 

dextantis 1 

[ „ 

) 

(= 

de-sextans) 

11 

rir 


= 

deunx 

33 

deuncis 

( „ 

) 

( = 

de-uncia) 

12 
T2 

(or 1 ) 

= 

as 

3 3 

assis 

( „ 

) 


« 


Heres ex asse = heir to the whole estate. 

Heres ex quincunce = heir to of it. 

N.B .—These fractions are likewise used of measures of land, 
weight, capacity, &c. 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[127- 


VERBS. 

127 . Verb Inflexions. 

(1) Person Inflexions.—A verb says something about a 

subject which may be of ist, 2d, or 3d person, 
singular or plural. 

In English the subject requires always to be ex¬ 
pressed—except in commands. 

In Latin finite verbs, person-endings (originally 
pronouns) are added, as case-endings are to 
nouns— 

1 love, thou lovest, he loves, we love, you love, they 
love. 

Thus— 

am-o, ) , ,. 

. \ > ama-s, ama-t, ama-mus, ama-tis, ama-nt. 

(ama-o)J 

N.B .—(1) The pronouns suffixed were probably— 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . -mi (cf. me). -mas (cf. v/mels). 

2. -si {<tv = tu). -tas (tu + s). 

3. -to (cf. to). -nti. 

N.B .—(2) M, the most perishable of the consonants, 
has disappeared from many ist persons singular. 

It remains in only two Presents Indicative— 
Sum (/ am); inquam (Isay). 

N.B .—(3) Sum = Greek cfyu = English am (the only 
trace in English of a verb in -mi). 

(2) Tense Inflexions.—To denote change of time in 

Latin, tense-endings are used, where English 
generally uses auxiliary verbs, as— 

I love = amo (ama-o). 

I 7vas loving = ama-bam. 

I have loved = ama-vi. 

I shall love = ama-bo. 


27-] 


VERBS. 


61 


Each of which tenses has its person-endings, as— 

Ama-ba-m, ama-ba-s, ama-ba-t, 
ama-ba-mus, ama-ba-tis, ama-ba-nt. 

(3) Mood Inflexions. —Change in the mode of state¬ 

ment is indicated by mood-endings, as— 

Indicative, am-o; subjunctive, am-em; impera¬ 
tive, am-a. 

Each having its tense and person endings. 

N.B. —(1) The special characteristic of the sub¬ 
junctive. is a long vowel preceding the termina¬ 
tion, as— 

slmus, doceatis. 

Compare Greek Subjunctives. 

N.B. —(2) It is quite misleading to assign any par¬ 
ticular English as the meaning of the subjunctive. 
No English form is always subjunctive, and a 
multitude of forms may be so, but may 
equally be indicative or imperative. 

The only principle is that whereas the indica¬ 
tive states something as a fact , the sub¬ 
junctive states it as an idea. 

N.B. — ( 3 ) The so-called tenses of the subjunctive 
do not mark time in the same way as those of the 
indicative. Their force will appear later. 

( 4 ) Voice Inflexions. —The passive voice (which states 

that its subject undergoes the action performed 
by the subject of the active) has its own in¬ 
flexions for person, number, tense, and mood. 
As a rule passive inflexions are formed by suf¬ 
fixing to the active the reflexive se (generally 
changed to r), as— 

Active, amo ; passive [amo-se— amo-re] amor. 
N.B .— ( 1 ) This se or r is the characteristic of the 


62 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[128-129. 


passive voice, though the precise formation is 
often not evident. 

N.B. —(2) The 2d person plural in -mini (as ama- 
mini) is exceptional. 

It was originally a past participle with an 
auxiliary. 

Compare Greek TeTu/z/xevoi dc tL 

N.B. —(3) S between two vowels is generally in 
Latin changed into r— 

Eram, ero (from sum). 

128. Periphrastic Tenses. 

Latin not having tense-forms to mark all distinctions 
of time, supplies the want by the auxiliary sum, 
used with participles. Tenses thus supplied are 
periphrastic (or roundabout) — 

Amaturus sum = I am about to love. 

Amaturus eram = 7 was about to love. 

N.B .—The future participle active and the gerun¬ 
dive form periphrastic tenses. 


129. Mood and Tense Significations. 

( 1 ) Indicative Mood. This mood states facts— 


Primary 


{ present, 
perfect, 

future,. 


amo, 
amavi, 
simple, amabo, 
perfect, amavero, 


f I love , 

\lam loving , 

I have loved, 

/ I shall love, 

VI shall be loving , 

I shall have loved, 


pres, indef. 
11 incomp. 
11 comp, 
fut. indef. 

11 incomp. 
11 comp. 


Historic • 


preterite, 

imperfect, 

pluperfect, 


amavi, I loved, past indef. 

amabam, I was loving, M incomp, 

amaveram, I had loved, n comp. 


N.B .— ( 1 ) The perfect and preterite, though always 
the same in form, are distinct tenses. 




VERBS. 63 

N.B. —(2) The present expresses the present of the 
act, the perfect the present of the state, as— 

(Present) Nosco = I learn. 

(Perfect) Novi = (I have learnt), I know. 

(2) Subjunctive Mood. This mood states ideas. 

It is used— 

(i) Independently, (ii) Subordinately. 

(i) Used independently (in a principal clause), 
it has two main significations— 

(a) Optative, representing the action not as 
real, but as desired or granted— 

Amemus ( let us love)—exhortation. 

Sis felix ( may you be happy)—wish. 

Sit ita {grant it is so)—concession. 

N.B. —This is often used instead of the imperative, 
especially in prohibition, as— 

Ne feceris {don't do it). 

(b) Potential, denoting the action not as real 

but as possible, as— 

Platonem laudaveris {you will probably praise 
Plato). 

Crederes victos {you would think them con¬ 
quered). 

When used independently, the tenses are thus 
employed— 

( a ) Optative use— 

Present and perfect, to express what is 
more or less probable. 

Imperfect, what is highly improbable. 
Pluperfect, what is no longer possible , as— 

Utinam me amet {may he love me). 

Utinam me amaret {would that he would love 
me). 

Utinam me amavisset {would that he had 
loved me). 


64 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


9 


[129. 


(b) Potential use— 

Present and perfect, for what is assumed 

as possibly true. 

Imperfect, for what is assumed as not true. 

Pluperfect, for what has already happened 

otherwise than as supposed, as— 

Non reprehenderim {lam not inclined to find 
fault). 

Troja nunc staret ( Troja might still be stand¬ 
ing —but is not). 

Crederes victos ( you would —wrongly— think 
them conquered —if you saw them). 

Venissent {they would have come —in some 
circumstances which did not occur). 

(ii) More commonly the subjunctive is used in 

subordination to another verb (i.e., in a 

subordinate clause). 

In such constructions its tenses are thus used— 

(a) After primary tenses of the indicative, 
or after the imperative (which in all its 
forms is built on the present indicative), 
primary tenses of the subjunctive. 

Present subjunctive, to express an action 
accompanying , or closely following, that 
of the principal verb, or of the verb on 
which the subjunctive depends. 

Perfect, to express an action preceding that 
of the principal. 

Primary future, one succeeding. 

if) After historic tenses of the indicative, 
historic of subjunctive. 

Imperfect, to express action accompanying. 

Pluperfect, one preceding. 

Historic future, one succeeding. 

[See examples, 253.] 


129 .] 


VERBS. 


65 


N.B. —(1) “The right rendering of this 
mood is not learnt from tables, but 
from exemplification, reading, and 
practice.”— Kennedy. 

N.B. —(2) The names subjunctive (sub- 
junctivus — subjoined) and conjunc¬ 
tive (<conjunctivas — conjoined) are 
misleading, as it can be subordinate 
or co-ordinate. 

It is better called by some the “thought 
mood.” 

(3) Imperative Mood. —This mood has but one tense, 
the present, which is also used with a quasi 
future meaning. 

[See 134a, 3.] 


2d person 
3d person 


Sing. 

Love 
Warn 
Read 
Hear ) 

Let him (love, &c.) 


1 


thou. 


Plur. 


Love, &c., ye. 

Let them love, &c. 


THE VERB INFINITIVE. 
Verbal Nouns. 


( 4 ) Infinitive Mood. 

Active. 

Present = to (love, warn, teach, hear). 

Perfect = to have (loved, &c.) 

Future = to be about to (love, &c.) 


Passive. 

= to be (loved, &c.) 

= to have been (loved, &c.) 

= to be about to be (loved, &c.) 


N.B .—There is no true future infin. passive, which 
is supplied by periphrastic phrases, as— 

Lectum iri (see 133a, 6, and 241a, 2), and Fore ut 
legatur (or legeretur), (to be about to be, that it 
should be read). 

E 



66 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[129. 


( 5 ) Gerund. 

Nom. Loving, &c. 

Gen. Of loving, &c. 

Dat. To loving, &c. 

Acc. Loving, &c. 

Abl. By, &c., loving, &c. 

NB. —( 1 ) The infinitive is used as the nom. of 
the gerund when the act is meant. The nom. 
gerund is used only in expression of duty and 
obligation, as— 

Legere utile est (reading is useful). 

Legendum est mihi (/ must read). 

NB. —(2) The accusative gerund is used— 

(a) As subject of an infinitive (to express duty 

or obligation), as— 

Dico legendum esse {I say 7 ve must read). 

(b) With a preposition, as— 

Paratus ad legendum (preparedfor reading). 

In other cases the infinitive is used for the 
accusative, as— 

Amat legere {he loves reading). 

(6) Supines. (Nouns of 4th Declension)— 

1st {Acc.) = loving, warning, teaching, hearing. 

2d (Abl.) =in the loving, 6 


Verbal Adjectives. 


( 7 ) Participles— 

Active. 

Present, Loving, &c. 

Perfect, (None.) 

Future, About to love, &c. 

Gerundive, (None.) 


Passive. 

(None.) 

Having been loved, &c. 
(None.) 

To be loved, &c. 



130-131.] 


VERBS. 


67 


NB. —(1) Particularly note the distinction between 
the nouns and the adjectives of the verb infini¬ 
tive, which are frequently expressed in English 
by the same words, thus— 

Reading is useful = Legere est utile. 

A man reading— Legens. 

To be loved is pleasant = Amari gratum est. 

A man to be loved — Vir amandus. 


NB. —(2) English verbals in ing are sometimes 
nouns, sometimes adjectives. Their true 
nature in each particular case must be care¬ 
fully observed. 


130. 


Conjugations. 


Verbs as a rule form their various parts according to 
one or other of four types, called the Four 

Conjugations. 

These are distinguished chiefly by the termination 
of the Present Infinitive Active — 


Infinitive in 


are = 1st Conjugation (amare). 
ere = 2d ,, (monere). 

ere = 3d ,, (leg§re). 

ire = 4th ,, (audlre). 


NB .—Verbs not forming their parts according to 
one or other of these systems are irregular. 
Verbs which are not used in all their tenses are 

defective. 


131. Principal Parts. 

The principal parts of a verb are those from which 
others are immediately formed. They are— 


Pres. Indic. 

amo 

moneo 

lego 

audio 


Pres. Infin. 

amare 

monere 

leggre 

audlre 


Perf. Indic. 

amavi 

monui 

legi 

audivi 


ist Supine. 

amatum 

monltum 

lectum 

audltum 


68 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


C I 3 2 * 


132. The Auxiliary Verb sum, esse, fui. 

N.B. — Also used as a copulative and as a substan¬ 
tive verb ( = to exist). 


Verb Finite. 


Primary Tenses. 


Present 


Perfect 


Indic. Mood. 
' Sing. i. sum 

2. es 

3. est 

Plur. 1. sumus 

2. estis 

3. sunt 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Subj. Mood. Imper. Mood. 
sim 

sis es or esto 

sit esto 

simus 

sitis este or estote 

sint sunto 


1. fui 

2. fuisti 

3. fuit 

1. fuimus 

2. fuistis 

3. fuerunt or fuere 


fugrim 

fueris 

fuerit 

fuerimus 

fueritis 

fuerint 


Future 


Simple ^ 


9 9 


99 


99 


Perfect \ 


Indic. Mood. Subj. Mood. 

Sing. 1. ero Sing. 1. futurus(-a, -um) sim 

2. eris 

3. erit 2. 

Plur. 1. erimus 

2. eritis 3. 

3. erunt 

Sing. 1. fuSro Plur. 1. futuri (-se, -a) 

2. fueris 

3. fuerit 2. 

Plur. 1. fuerimus 

2. fueritis 3. 

3. fuerint 




»> 


sis 

sit 

simus 

sitis 

sint 










320 .] 


VERBS. 


69 


Historical Tenses. 


Imperfect ( 


Indic. Mood. 

' Sing. 1. eram 

2. eras 

3. erat 

Plur. 1. eramus 

2. eratis 

3. erant 


Subj. Mood. 
essem or forem 
esses or fores 
esset or foret 
essemus or foremus 
essetis or foretis 
essent or forent 


Preterite— Sing. 1, fui, &c. (as the Perfect). 


Pluperfect 


Future 


I 


Indic. 

Mood. 

Subj. Mood. 

Sing. 

1. 

fueram 

fuissem 


2. 

fueras 

fuisses 


3 - 

fuerat 

fuisset 

Plur. 

1. 

fueramus 

fuissemus 


2. 

fueratis 

fuissetis 


3 - 

fuerant 

fuissent 

Sing. 

1. 

futurus (-a, -um) 

essem 


2. 

n >> 

esses 


3 - 

> > > y 

esset 

Plur. 

1. 

futuri (-se, -a) 

essemus 


2. 


essetis 


3 . 


essent 


Verb Infinite. 

Verbal Nouns. 

1 Present, esse 

Infinitive Mood j Perfect, fuisse 

( Future, fore or futurus (-a, -um) esse 


Verbal Adjectives. 


Participles 


{ 


Present (wanting) 

Future, futurus, -a, -um 


132 a. Note on the verb sum. 

As will be seen, the parts of this verb are formed from two differ¬ 
ent roots, which appear respectively in sum, es, &c., and in fui. 
.Compare Greek ii/A and (pvu, also English am and was.) 




70 


LATIN GRAMMAR 


C I 33 * 


REGULAR VERBS. 


133. I. FIRST CONJUGATION: Amo, amare, amavi, 
amatum (I love). 

Verb Finite. 


Primary Tenses. 

Active Voice. 


I 


Present 


Indic. 

Sing. 

amo 

amas 
amat 
Plur. 
amamus 
amatis 
am ant 


SUBJ. 

Sing. 

amem 

ames 

amet 

Plur. 

amemus 

ametis 

ament 


Imper. 


rama 

S,n namato 


Plur. 


amato 
f amate 
\amatote 
amanto 


Perfect 


Indic. 

Sing. 

amavi 

amavisti 

amavit 

Plur. 

amavimus 

amavistis 
f amaverunt 
(amavere 


SUBJ. 

Sing. 

amavSrim 

amaveris 

amaverit 

Plur. 

amaverlmus 

amaveritis 

amaverint 


Passive 

Indic. 

Sing. 

amor 
/ amaris 
\ amare 
amatur 
Plur. 
amamur 
amamini 
amantnr 


Voice. 

SUBJ. 

Sing* 
amer 
f ameris 
tamere 
ametur 

Plur. 
amemur 
amemini 
amentur 


Sing. 


Imper. 

I'amare 
(amator 
amator 

Plur. amamini 
amantor 


Indic. 

Sing. 

amatus sum 
(-a, -um) 

es 
est 
Plur. 

amati sumus 

(-», -a) 

,, estis 
,, sunt 




SUBJ. 

Sing. 

amatus sim 
(-a, -um) 

,, sis 
» sit 
Plur. 

amati simus 
(-se, -a) 

sitis 
sint 


y y 
yy 
















Imperfect Preterite Future 


r 33 -] 


VERBS. 


71 


Primary Tenses— continued. 

Active Voice. 

Indic. Subj. 

( Sing. 

amabo 


<u 

a 

a 

•H 

in 


amabis 

amabit 

Plur. 

amablmus 

amabitis 

amabunt 


Sing. 

amavero 


amavens 

amaverit 

Plur. 

amaverimus 

amaveritis 

amaverint 


Historical Tenses. 


43 

O 

,© 

f-l 

<u 

Ph 


Sing. 

amaturus sim 
(-a, -um) 

sis 
sit 


9 9 

99 


Plur. 

amaturi simus 
(-se, -a) 

sitis 
sint 


9 9 


Passive Voice. 

Indic. 

Sing, 
amabor 
f amabSris 
(amabere 
amabltur 
Plur. 
amablmur 

amabimini 

amabuntur 

Sing. 

amatus ero (or fuero) 

(-a,-um) 

eris (orfueris) 
erit (or fuerit) 
Plur. 

amati erimus (orfuerimus) 
(•se, -a) 

,, eritis (orfuerltis) 

,, erunt (or fuerint) 


Subj. 


) y 

>9 


Indic. 

Subj. 

Indic. 

Sing. 


Sing. 

amavi 

•. • 

amatus sum 

(&c., as Perf.) 


(-a, -um) 

(&c., as Perf.) 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

amabam 

amarem 

amabar 
j amabaris 

amabas 

amares 

1 amabare 

amabat 

amaret 

amabatur 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

amabamus 

amaremus 

amabamur 

amabatis 

amaretis 

amabamini 

amabant 

amarent 

amabantur 


Sing. 

amarer 
f amareris 
( amarere 
amaretur 
Plur. 

amaremur 

amaremini 

amarentur 



























Pluperfect 


72 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i 33 * 


Historical Tenses— continued. 
Active Voice. 


Indic. 

Sing. 

amaveram 

amaveras 

amaverat 

Plur. 

amaveramus 

• 

amaveratis 

amaverant 


Future 


Passive Voice. 


SUBJ. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

amavissem 

amatus eram 

amatus essem 


(-a, -um) 

(-a, -um) 

amavisses 

„ eras 

,, esses 

amavisset 

,, erat 

,, esset 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

amavissemus 

amati eramus 

amati essemus 


(-ae,-a) 

(-se, -a) 

amavissetis 

„ eratis 

,, essetis 

amavissent 

,, erant 

,, essent 

amaturus essem 



(-a, -um) 



,, esses 



&c. 




Verb Infinite. 


Active Voice. 
Verbal Nouns. 


Infinitive 


/'Pres, amare 
J Perf. amavisse 
I Fut. amaturus esse 
^ (-a, -um) 


Gerund 


Sing. 

! Nom. amandum 
Gen. amandi 
Dat. amando 
Acc. amandum 
Abl. amando 


Passive Voice. 


amari 

amatus (-a, -um) esse 
amatum iri 

fore ut( ametur j 
lamaretur J 


Supines I. amatum II. amatu 









VERBS. 


73 


133J 


Verb Infinite — continued. 


Verbal Adjectives. 

Active Voice. 

Pres, amans (Gen. amantis) 
Perf. (None) 

Fut. amaturus, -a, -urn 

(Gen. amaturi, -se, -i) 
Gerundive (None) 


Passive Voice. 

(None) 

amatus, -a, -um 
(Gen. amati, -se, -i) 
(None) 

amandus, -a, -um 
(Gen. amandi, -se, -i) 


II. SECOND CONJUGATION: Moneo, monere, mon- 
ui, monitum (/70am). 


Verb Finite. 


Primary Tenses. 


Present 


Active 

Voice. 

Passive 

Voice. 

Indic. 

SUBJ. 

Indic. 

SUBJ. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

moneo 

moneam 

moneor 

monear 

mones 

moneas 

j moneris 

j monearis 



( monere 

( moneare 

monet 

moneat 

monetur 

moneatur 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

monemus 

moneamus 

monemur 

moneamur 

monetis 

moneatis 

monemini 

moneamini 

monent 

moneant 

monentur 

moneantur 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Imper. 

^ mone 
( moneto 
moneto 
( monete 
( monetote 
monento 


Imper. 
Sing. / monere 
Imonetor 
monetor 
Plur. monemini 

monentor 












Future Perfect 


74 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[133- 


Primary Tenses— continued .. 


Active Voice. Passive Voice. 


Indic. 

SUBJ. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

monui 

monuerim 

monitus sum 

monitus sim 



(-a, -um) 

(-a, -um) 

monuisti 

monueris 

„ es 

,, sis 

monuit 

monuerit 

,, est 

,, sit 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

monuimus 

monuerimus 

moniti sumus 

moniti simus 



(-«, -a) 

(-se, -a) 

monuistis 

monueritis 

,, estis 

,, sitis 

I'monuerunt 

monuerint 

,, sunt 

,, sint 

\monuere 





Active Voice. Passive Voice. 




Indic. 

Sing. 

monebo 


monebis 


a> 



m 


monebit 

Plur. 

moneblmus 


monebltis 
V monebunt 
/ Sing, 
monuero 



monueris 

monuerit 

Plur. 

monuerimus 


monueritis 
, monuerint 


SUBJ. 


Sing. 

moniturus sim 
(-a, -um) 

,, sis 

„ sit 

Plur. 

monituri simus 

(-», -a) 

,, sitis 

sint 


Indic. 

Sing. 

monebor 

moneb6ris 

monebere 

monebitur 

Plur. 

moneblmur 

monebimini 

monebuntur 

Sing. 

monitus ero or fuero 
(-a, -um) 

„ eris or fueris 
„ erit or fuerit 
Plur. 

moniti erimus or fuerimus 

(-*, -a) 

,, eritis or fueritis 
,, erunt or fuerint 




















Pluperfect Imperfect Preterite 


VERBS 


75 


133-3 


Historical Tenses. 
Active Voice. 


Indic. 

Sing. 

monui 

(&c., as Perf.) 

Sing. 

monebam 

monebas 

) monebat 
S Plur. 

monebamus 
monebatis 
monSbant 

Indic. 

( Sing. 

monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 

Plur. 

monueramus 


\ 


monueratis 

monuerant 


Future 


SUBJ. 


Sing. 

monerem 

moneres 

moneret 

Plur. 

moneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 

Subj. 

Sing. 

monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 

Plur. 

monuissemus 

monuissetis 

mouuissent 

Sing. 

moniturus ( a, 
-uni) essem 
,, esses 

&c. 


Passive 

Indic. 

Sing. 

monltus sum 
(-a, -um) 

(&c., as Perf.) 

Sing, 
monebar 
f monebaris 
tmonebare 
monebatur 
Plur. 

monebamur 
monebamini 
monebantur 


Indic. 

Sing. 

monltus eram 
( a, -um) 

eras 
erat 

Plur. 

moniti eramus 
(-ae, -a) 

eratis 
erant 


> 9 
>9 


9 9 
99 


Voice. 

Subj. 


Sing. 

monerer 
f monereris 
Imonerere 
moneretur 

Plur. 

moneremur 

moneremini 

monerentur 


Subj. 

Sing. 

monltus essem 
(-a, -um) 

,, esses 
,, esset 
Plur. 

moniti essemus 
(-ae, -a) 

,, essetis 
essent 


9 9 


Verb Infinite. 


Verbal Nouns. 

Active Voice. 

! Pres. monere 
Perf. monuisse 
Fut. moniturus esse 
(-a, -um) 


Passive Voice, 
moneri 

monltus (-a, -um) esse 
monitum iri 

fore utf moneatur ) 
l moneretur J 























76 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i33 


Verb Infinite— continued. 


Active Voice. 

Sing. 

Nom. monendum 
Gen. monendi 
Gerund / Dat. monendo 
Acc. monendum 
Abl. monendo 
Supines I. monltum II. monltu 

Verbal Adjectives. 

Pres, monens 

(Gen. monentis) 

Perf. (None) 

Fut. moniturus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 

Gerundive (None) 


Passive Voice. 


(None) 

monitus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 
(None) 

monendus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 


III. THIRD CONJUGATION : Lego, legere, legi, lec 
turn (/ read). 

Verb Finite. 

Primary Tenses. 

Active Voice. 


Passive Voice. 


Indic. 

Sing. 

lego 


Present 


legis 

legit 

Plur. 

legimus 

legitis 

legunt 


Subj. 

Sing. 

legam 

legas 


Sing. 


Plur. 


legat 
Plur. 
legamus 
legatis 
legant 
Imper. 

/legS 
(legito 
legito 
jleglte 
\ legitote 
legunto 


Indic. 

Sing. 

legor 
/ legeris 
\ legere 
legitur 
Plur. 


Subj. 

Sing. 

legar 
f legaris 
(legare 
legatur 
Plur. 


legimur 
legimini 
leguntur 

Imper. 

(legere 
in ^' \legItor 
legltor 

Plur. legimini 
leguntor 


legamur 

legamini 

legantur 













VERBS. 


77 


133-] 

Primary Tenses—continued. 

Active Voice. 


Perfect. 


Indic. 

Subj. 

Indic. 

^ Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

legi 

legerim 

lectus sum 

legisti 

legeris 

(-a, -um) 

„ es 

legit 

legerit 

„ est 

( Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

leglraus 

legerimus 

lecti sumus 

legistis 

legerltis 

(-ae, -a) 

„ estis 

f legerunt 
\ llegere 

legerint 

,, sunt 


Passive Voice. 

SUBJ. 
Sing. 

lectus sim 
(-a, um) 

,, sis 
„ sit 
Plur. 

lecti simus 

(-». -a) 

,, sitis 
,, sint 


o 

u 

2 

Ph 


/ 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Indic. 


' Sing. 


Sing. 


legam 


legar 


leges 


f legeris 




llegere 

f-H 

a 

leget 


legetur 

a 

• H 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

U 2 

legemus 

lecturus sim 

legemur 



(-a, -um) 



legetis 

„ sis 

legemini 


s legent 

„ sit 

legentur 

/ Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 


leg§ro 

lecturi simus 

lectus ero (or fuero) 



(-». -a) 

(-a, -um) 


legeris 

„ sitis 

,, eris (or fueris) 

43 

0 

legerit 

,, sint 

,, erit (or fuerit) 

<8 / 
u \ 

Plur. 

3 

Plur. 


legerimus 


lecti erimus (or fuerimus) 




• (-se, -a) 


legeritis 


,, eritis (or fueritis 

\ 

legerint 


,, erunt (or fuerint) 


















Pluperfect Imperfect Preterite 


78 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


033- 


Historical Tenses. 
Active Voice. 

Indic. 

Sing. 

legi 

(&c.,as Perf.) 

Sing. 

legebam 
legebas 

legebat 

Plui*. 

legebamus 
legebatis 
Uegebant 

Indic. 

Sing. 

legSram 

legeras 
/ legerat 
Plur. 

legeramus 

legeratis 
Vlegerant 

Future 


Passive Voice. 


SUBJ. 

Indic. 

Sing. 

Subj. 

• * * 

lectus sum 
(-a, -um) 

(&c., as Perf.) 


Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

legSrem 

legebar 

leggrer 

legeres 

( legebaris 

( legereris 


\ legebare 

( legerere 

legeret 

legebatur 

legeretur 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

legeremus 

legebamur 

legeremur 

legeretis 

legebamini 

legeremini 

legerent 

legebantur 

legerentur 

Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

legissem 

lectus eram 

lectus essem 


(-a, -um) 

(-a, -um) 

legisses 

,, eras 

,, esses 

legisset 

,, erat 

,, esset 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

legissemus 

lecti eramus 

lecti essemus 


(-se, -a) 

(-ae ; -a) 

legissetis 

,, eratis 

,, essetis 

legissent 

Sing. 

,, erant 

,, essent 

amaturus (-a, 
-um) essem 

&c. 




Verb Infinite. 

Verbal Nouns. 

Active Voice. 

Pres, legere 

Infinitive < Perf - le S isse 
F ut. lecturus 

(-a, -um) esse 


Passive Voice, 
legi 

lectus (-a, -um) esse 
lectum iri 

fore ut! Iegatur 

(legeretur 
















VERBS. 


79 


133*] 


Verb Infinite— continued. 


Active Voice. 

Sing. 

( Nom. legendum 
Gen. legendi 
Dat. legendo 
A cc. legendum 
Abl. legendo 

Supines I. lectum II. lectu 

Verbal Adjectives. 

Pres, legens (Gen. legentis) 
Perf. (None) 

Fut. lecturus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 
Gerundive (None) 


Passive Voice. 


(None) 

lectus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 

(None) 

legendus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -ae, -i) 


IV. FOURTH CONJUGATION : Audio, audlre, audivi, 
auditum (/ hear). 

Verb Finite. 


Primary Tenses. 
Active Voice. 

Indic. 
Sing. 

audio 
audis 


Present 


Subj. 

Sing. 

audiam 

audias 


audit 
Plur. 
audlmus 
audltis 
audiunt 

Imper. 
f audl 
laudlto 
audlto 
/ audlte 
lauditote 
audiunto 


audiat 

Plur. 

audiamus 

audiatis 

audiant 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Passive Voice. 


Indic. 

Sing. 

audior 
f audlris 
laudire 
audltur 
Plur. 
audlmur 
audimini 
audiuntur 

Imper. 
f audlre 
l auditor 
auditor 

Plur. audimini 
audiuntor 


Subj. 

Sing. 

audiar 
/ audiaris 
laudiare 
audiatur 
Plur. 

audiamur 

audiamini 

audiantur 


Sing. 













Future _Perfect 


80 LATIN GRAMMAR. 

Primary Tenses— continued. 

Active Voice. 


[133- 


Passive Voice. 


Indic. 

/ Sing. 

audlvi 

audivisti 

audivit 

Plur. 

audivimus 

audivistis 
f audiverunt 
\\audivere 


Simple 


Perfect 


SUBJ. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

audiverim 

audltus sum 

audltus sim 


(-a, -um) 

(-a, -um) 

audiveris 

„ es 

,, sis 

audiverit 

,, est 

„ sit 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

audiverimus 

auditi sumus 

auditi simus 


(-se, -a) 

(-se, -a) 

audiverltis 

,, estis 

,, sitis 

audiverint 

,, sunt 

,, sint 

Voice. 


Passive Voice. 

Indic. 

SUBJ. 

Indic. 

Sing. 


Sing. 

audiam 

• 

audiar 



/ audieris 

audies 


l audiere 

audiet 


audietur 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

audiemus 

auditurus sim 

audiemur 


(-a, -um) 


audietis 

„ sis 

audiemini 

audient 

» sit 

audientur 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

audivero 

audituri simus 

auditus ero 


(-se, -a) 

(-a, -um) 

audiveris 

,, sitis 

,, eris 

audiverit 

,, sint 

,, erit 

Plur. 


Plur. 

audiverimus 


auditi erimus 



(-se, -a) 

audiverltis 


,, eritis 

audiverint 


,, erunt 






















Pluperfect Imperfect Preterite 


VERBS. 


8 r 


I33-] 


Historical Tenses— 


Active Voice. 


Passive Voice. 


Indic. 

SUBJ. 

Indic. 

SUBJ. 

f Sing. 


Sing. 


1 audivi 

.. • 

auditus sum 


1 (&c.,as Perf.) 


(-a, -um) 


1 


(&c., as Perf.) 


/ Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

audiebam 

audlrem 

audiebar 

audlrer 

audiebas 

audires 

f audiebaris 

) audireris 



laudiebare 

\ audirere 

audiebat 

audiret 

audiebatur 

audiretur 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

Plur. 

audiebamus 

audiremus 

audiebamur 

audiremur 

audiebatis 

audiretis 

audiebamini 

audiremini 

audiebant 

audirent 

audiebantur 

audirentur 


Indic. 

( Sing. 

audivSram 

audiveras 

audiverat 

Plur. 

audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 


Future 


SUBJ. 

Indic. 

Sing. 

Sing. 

audivissem 

auditus eram 
(-a, -um) 

audivisses 

,, eras 

audivisset 

,, erat 

Plur. 

Plur. 

audivissemus 

auditi eramus 
(-se, -a) 

audivissetis 

,, eratis 

audivissent 

,, erant 

Sing. 


auditurus (-a, 
-um) essem, 

&c. 



SUBJ. 

Sing. 

auditus essem 
(-a, -um) 

,, esses 
,, esset 
Plur. 

auditi essemus 

(-». -a) 

,, essetis 
,, essent 


F 






















82 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 133 *- 


Verb Infinite. 

Verbal Nouns. 


Active Voice. 


Passive Voice. 


Infinitive 


Pres, audlre 
Perf. audivisse 
Fut. auditurus esse 
(-a, -urn) 


' Sing. 

Nom. audiendum 

_ , Gen. audiendi 

GeruM Dat audiendo 

I Acc. audiendum 
\ Abl. audiendo 

Supines. I. audltum II. audltu 

Verbal Adjectives. 

Pres, audiens 

(Gen. audientis) 

Perf. (None) 

Fut. auditurus, -a, -urn 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 

Gerundive (None) 


audiri 

auditus (-a, -um) esse 
auditum iri 

fore ut/audia-tur 1 
laudiretur J 


(None) 

auditus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 
(None) 

audiendus, -a, -um 
(Gen. -i, -se, -i) 


Notes on the Conjugations. 

133a. (i) In active perfects in avi and evi, and in tenses formed 
therefrom, vi and ve are often omitted before r or s, as— 

Amavisse = amasse, deleverunt = delerunt. 

N.B .—But such contractions as amavere to amare, delevere 
to delere, which would resemble the infinitive, are not 
admitted. 

For the same reason the forms of the 2 d pers. sing. pres, 
indie, pass, in re are seldom used. 




133 a.] VERBS. 83 

(2) In active perfects in ivi, and tenses formed therefrom, v is often 

omitted before e or i, as — 

Audiveram = audieram; audivissem=audiissem. 

IV. B. —In prose -iiss is always contracted to -iss, as audissem. 

(3) Short form of imperative.—Dico (/ say), duco (I lead), facio 

(/ make), and fero (/ bear), have imperatives die, due, fac, 
fer. 

(4) The imperative forms active in -to and passive in -tor are more 

emphatic, and being used in laws and decrees, are sometimes 
called future imperatives. 

N.B. —These are the only imperatives used, in prose, for pro¬ 
hibitions with ne, as — 

Defunctus intra urbem ne sepelitor. ( Let not a corpse 

be buried in the city.) 

Nocturna sacrificia ne sunto. ( Let there be no sacrifices 
by night.) 

They are so used in laws, and when legal style is imitated. 

The subjunctive is usually employed for prohibitions, as— 

Ne feceris (don't do it). 

The poets occasionally use the imperative with ne, as — 

Ne ssevi (be not furious). 

(5) The present participle, when used properly as a participle, 

has abl. sing, in e; when as an adjective, in i. 

(6) The so-called future infinitive passive (as lectum iri) is made 

up of the supine in um with the pres. inf. pass, of ire (to go), 
used impersonally [241^, 2]. 

(7) Periphrastic Tenses. —Besides the tenses given in the table, 

the future and gerundive participles can be conjugated with 
all the parts of sum, as— 

Amaturus sum = I am about to love (= amabo). 
Amandus ero = / shall be worthy of love. 

Irregular forms— 

(8) An old form of the present infinitive passive in -ier is used by 

some poets, as amarier for amari. 

(9) Other old forms occasionally used are— 

faxo, for fut. indie, of facio. 
ausim, for fut. subj. of audeo. 
faxis, ausis, for fut. indie, or subj. 


/ 


8 4 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


C 1 34* 


Also the following, which are probably used as follows— 

Levasso for levavero (levo, -are); prohibesso for pro- 
hibuero (prohibeo); capso for cepero (capio); axo 
for egero (ago); occisit for occiderit (occldo); taxis 
for tetigeris (tango), &c. 

(io) Verbal Adjectives. — Besides the ordinary participles, various 
verbal adjectives, called participials, are formed from certain 
verbs. 

(«) An active present participial in bundus or cundus (rarely 
transitive), as— 

Cunctabundus = lingering ; moribundus = dying ; ira- 
cundus = wrathful. 

(b) Passive in bilis or ilis, signifying possibility ox.fitness , as— 

Amabilis = lovable ; docilis = teachable. 

(c) Active in ax (never transitive), signifying disposition, as — 

Loquax = talkative ; ferax = fertile. 

(d) Active in idus (never transitive), intensifying the notion of 
the verb, as— 

Rapidus = devouring or hurrying ; cupidus = eagerly 
desirous. 


134. Different kinds of Verbs— 

(i) Deponent verbs have passive form and active mean¬ 
ing, as— 

vescor, vesci, I satiate myself. 

Compare pascor, pasci, pastus sum, 1 feed myself, the 
transitive form of which (pasco) is in use = feed 
or pasture a flock. 

N.B. —Deponents were so called as laying aside 
their active form and passive meaning. (De- 
pono = / lay aside.) The name is very incor¬ 
rect. Deponents are rather the survivors of the 
older middle form of verbs with reflexive force, 
which form afterwards came to be used in 
passive sense; thus— 

loquor - I set myself talking. 


VERBS. 


I34-] 


35 


(a) Though passive in form, deponents have par¬ 
ticiples of the active as well as of the passive 
formation, as— 

loquens = speaking; locuturus, about to speak. 

{!?) The participles of passive form (i.e., the perfect 
participle and the gerundive) have frequently 
a passive force, though the rest of the verb is 
used actively, as— 

loquendus = be spoken of 

( 2 ) Semi-deponents (or neuter-passives) are, in form, 
partly active and partly passive. These are— 


udere, ausus sum = I dare. 
gaudere, gavlsus sum = / 



2 d Conjugation 


| Soleo, solere, solitus su m — I am 

\ wont. 

3 </ Conjugation Fido, fidSre, fisus sum = I trust. 

N.B. —Audeo, in the future subjunctive, has the 
form ausim (133^, 9). 

(3) Frequentatives in -to or -so express repeated or 
intense action. They are always of the 1st Con¬ 
jugation, as— 


dicto (from dico) — 1 say often. 


N.B .—There are also frequentatives of frequenta¬ 
tives, as— 

dictito — I keep on saying (from dicto). 

(4) Inceptives in -sco express the beginning of action, 
as— 

puerasco = / become a boy (from puer, m.) 
pallesco = Ig>'ow pale (from palleo). 

N.B .—There is no inceptive form except in the 
present and tenses derived from it. 


86 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


Ci35- 

(5) Desideratives in -urio express desire (always of 

4th Conjugation), as esurio (I desire to eat, from 
edo, supine esum). 

(6) Diminutives (ist Conjugation), as ustulo, -are, to 

singe , from uro (supine ustum), to burn . 

(7) Imitative verbs (ist Conjugation), as Grsecisso 
(or Grsecizo) -are, to follow Greek fashion. 

(8) Quasi passive, with active form and passive mean¬ 
ing, are— 

Exulo, -are — lam banished. 

Fio, fieri — lam made. 

Liceo, -ere = / am put to auction. 

Veneo, -ire = I am for sale (lam sold). 

N.B. —Ven-eo = I go for sale, as ven-do = I give for 
sale. 

(9) Deponent participles belonging to active verbs 
are—• 

Juratus (juro, -are) =having sworn. 

Cenatus (ceno, -are) = having dined. 

Pransus (prandeo, -ere) —having breakfasted. 


135. DEFECTIVES. 

(a) Ccepi (/ have begun) has only the perfect (and 
preterite), the supine, and some parts formed 
from them— 

Ccepi, coeperim, ccepero, cceperam, coepissem, ccepisse, 
coeptum, cceptus. 

N.B .—The classical present is incipio. 

(b) Odi (/ hate) has parts formed from the perfect, and 

the participles perfect and future. (No preterite)_ 

Odi, oderim, odero, oderam, odissem, odisse, osus 
(hating), osurus. 

(e) Memini (/ remember) has parts formed from the 


135 *] VERBS. 87 

perfect (no preterite), and the 2d pers. sing, and 
plur. of the imperative— 

Memini, meminerim, meminero, memineram, memin- 
issem, meminisse, memento, mementote. 


N.B. — Odi and memini having present sense, their 
pluperfect has imperfect sense. Oderam = I hated, 
was hating; memineram = / remembered. 


(d) Aio {I affirm) has these parts :— 

Pres. Ind. aio £is &it ... ... aiunt 

Pres. Subj. ... aias aiat ... ... aiant 

Imperf. Ind. aiebam, aiebas, &c., (complete). 


(e) Inquam (I say) has these parts :— 


Pres. Ind. 
Imperf. ,, 
Fut. (Simple) 
Perf. & Pret. 
Imper. 


inquam inquis inquit inquimus inquitis inquiunt 
inquiebat ... ... inquiebant 

inquies inquiet 
inquisti inquit 
inque ... inquite 


(/) Quseso [I entreat) has only quseso, qusesurum. 

(g) Fari {to speak) has fatur (he speaks); fabor (/ shall 
speak); fare (speak thou). Participles, fatus ( hav¬ 
ing spoken; fandus ( speakable). Gerunds, fandi, 
fando. 


N.B .—Used by poets only. 

(//) Imperatives without other parts— 

Apage {begone). 

Cedo, cedite (or cette) (give here). 

Ave, avete (hail!) (Infin. avere). 

Salve, salvete (hail!) (Infin. salvere). 

(/) Age, agite (come!) vale, valete (infinitive valere) 
(farewell!) are used with special meaning, but 
their verbs ago and valeo are fully conjugated. 


88 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[136-137. 


136 . Impersonate. (See Syntax, 239 242.) 

The following are the chief impersonate :— 

(a) Fulgiirat = it lightens ; ningit = it snows ; pluit = it 
rains ; grandlnat = it hails ; tonat = it thunders ; 
lucescit = it dawns ; vesperascit = it grows late. 

(I?) (2d Conjugation) — Oportet = it behoves: decet = it be¬ 
seems ; ded6cet = it misbeseems; piget = it irks ; 
pudet = it shames; psenltet = it repents; tsedet = 
it disgusts; miseret = it moves pity ; libet (and 
lubet) = it pleases; licet = it is lawful; liquet = it 
is clear; attlnet = it relates; pertinet = it belongs, 
(e) (Other conjugations)— Accldit = it happens; contingit 
. = it befalls; ev§nit = it turns out; conv6n.it = it 

suits; exp6dit = it is expedient; delectat = it 
charms; juvat = it delights; constat = it is certain; 
refert = it concerns; interest = it concerns. 

NB .—The tenses and moods of impersonate are 
regularly formed according to their conjugation, 
as— 

Oportet, oporteat, oportuit, oportebit, oporteret, &c. 


137. Irregular Verbs. 


(a) Possum, posse, potui = f am able (potis sum). 


Indicative— 


Primary 


Pres. 

Perf. 

Fut. Simple 




Perf. 


possum, potes, potest, possiimus, potestis, 
possunt 

potui, potuisti, potuit, potulmus, potu- 
istis, potuerunt or potuere 
potero, poteris, poterit, poterimus, pote- 
ritis, poterint 

potuero, potueris, potuerit, potuerimus, 
potueritis, potuerint 


I Imperf. poteram, poteras, poterat, poteramus, 

poteratis, poterant 

Pret. (as Perf.) potui, &c. 

Pluperf. potueram, potueras, potuerat, potuera- 

mus, potueratis, potuerant 


VERBS. 


89 


* 37 *] 


Subjunctive — 

( Pres. 

Primary < 

f Perf. 

( Imperf. 

Historic < 

I Pluperf. 

Infinitive— 

Pres. 

Participle— 

Pres. 


possim, possis, possit, posslmus, possltis, 
possint 

potuerim, potueris, potuerit, potuerimus, 
potuerltis, potuerint 

possem, posses, posset, possemus, pos- 
setis, possent 

potuissem, potuisses, potuisset, potuis- 
semus, potuissetis, potuissent 

posse. Perf. potuisse 


potens, used only as an adjective = powerful 


(l) (1) Volo, velle, volui = / am willing; (2) Nolo 
(non volo), nolle, nolui = / am unwilling; (3) 
Malo (magis volo) — /prefer , form their tenses 
regular^, except the present— 


Indicative— 


Primary 


Historic | 


volo, vis, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt 
nolo, non vis, non vult, nolumus, non vultis, 


Pres. < 

; nolunt 



malo, mavis 

, mavult, malumus, mavultis, 


V malunt 


Perf. 

1. volui 

2. nolui 

3. malui 

Fut. Simp. 

1. volam 

2. nolam 

3. malam 

Fut. Perf. 

1. voluero 

2. noluero 

3. maluero 

Imperf. 

1. volebam 

2. nolebam 

3. malebam 

Pret. 

1. volui 

2. nolui 

3. malui 

Pluperf. 

1. volueram 

2. nolueram 

3. malueram 


Subjunctive— 


Primary 


Pres. 


Perf. 


flMPERF. 

Historic |p LUPERF> 


1. velim, velis, velit, vellmus, velitis, velint 

2. nolim, nolis, nolit, nollmus, nolitis, nolint 

3. malim, malis, malit, mallmus, malitis, 

malint 

1. voluerim 2. noluerim 3. maluerim 

1. vellem 2. nollem 3. mallem 
1. voluissem 2. noluissem 3. maluissem 


90 

Imperative— 


Infinitive— 

Pres. 

Perf. 

Gerund— 


Participle— 

Pres. 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i 37 - 


I. (Of volo none) 

rnoli 

2 * . *“ fnolito 

3. (Of malo none) 


rnolite 

^nolitote 


1. velle 2. nolle 3. malle 

1. voluisse 2. noluisse 3. maluisse 


1. volendum, -i 2. nolendmn, -i 3. malen- 
dum, -i 


1. volens 2. nolens 3. malens 


(c) Eo, ire, ivi, itum (Igo). 


Indicative— 


Primary 


( Pres. 

Perf. 

Fut. Simp. 
Fut. Perf. 




! Imperf. 
Preter. 
Pluperf. 


eo, is, it, inrns, itis, eunt 

r iverunt 

ivi, ivisti, ivit, ivimus, ivistis, - . .. 

^ivere 

ibo, ibis, ibit, ibimus, ibitis, ibunt 
ivero, iveris, iverit, iverlmus, iveritis, 
iverint 


ibam 

ivi 

iveram 


Subjunctive — 

1 Pres. 
Primary \ Perf. 

I Fut. 

S Imperf. 
PLUrERF. 
Fut. 


earn, eas, eat, eamus, eatis, eant 
iverim, iveris, iverit, &c. 
iturus sim, iturus sis, &c. 
irem, &c. 
ivissem, &c. 
iturus essem, &c. 


Imperative— 


Infinitive— 



rite 

\itote 


eunto 


Pres, ire; Perf. ivisse; Fut. iturus esse 



VERBS. 


91 


1 3 7-] 

Gerund— 

eundum, -i 

Participle— 

Pres. iens ; Gen. euntis 

Fut. iturus, -a, -um 

Gerundive— 

In compounds, eundus, eunda, eundum 


( d ) Fio, fieri, factus sum. 
Indicative— 



f Pres. 

fio, fis, fit [fimus, fitis], fiunt 

j 

Primary J 
1 

1 Perf. 

factus (-a, -um), sum, &c. 

| Fut. Simp. 

fiam, fies, &c. 


IFut. Perf. 

factus (-a, um), ero, See. 


f Imperf. 

fiebam, &c. 

Historic < 

Pret. 

factus, (-a, -um), sum 


[ Pluperf. 

factus ( a, -um), eram 

Subjunctive— 


Primary -j 

[Pres. 

[Perf. 

fiam, fias, &c. 

factus (-a, -um), sim, &c. 

Historic { 

("Imperf. 

[Pluperf. 

fierem, See. 

factus (-a, -um), essem, &c. 

Imperative— 

fi, fite 

Infinitive— 



Pres. 

fieri 


Perf. 

factus (-a, -um), esse 


Fut. 

factum iri 


Participles— 

Perf. factus, -a, -um 

Gerundive faciendus, -a, -um 


9 2 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[i 37 - 


(e) fero, ferre, tuli, latum (/ bear). 
Indicative— 


/ 


Perf. 


Primary 


C Act. 

Pres. -j Pas. 

/Act. 
I Pas. 

\ C Act. 

Fut. S.MP.| pas 

f Act. 


Fut. Perf. 


V 


{ Imperf. 
Prefer. 
Pluperf. 


iPas. 

/Act. 
I Pas. 
/ Act. 
I Pas. 
/ Act. 
I Pas. 


fero, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt 
feror, ferris, fertur, ferimur, ferimini, 
feruntur 
tuli, &c. 

latus (-a, -um), sum, Sec. 
feram, feres, Sec. 

ferar ( fereris - &c ' 

Iferere 

tulero, &c. 

latus (-a, -um), sum, Sec. 

ferebam, &c. 
ferebar, &c. 
tuli, &c. 

latus (-a, -um) sum, &c. 

tulissem, Sec. 

latus (-a, -um) essem, Sec. 


Subjunctive- 

Pres. 


Primary / 


Perf. 
k Fut. 

/Imperf. 


'Act. feram, feras, &c. 

Pas. ferar { teraris - &c - 
tferare 

f Act. tulerim 

IPas. latus sim 

laturus (-a, -um) sim 

/ Act. ferrem 
l Pas. ferrer 


Historic { p LlJPEKF . {Act. tulissem 

l Pas. latus essem 




Fut. 


Act. laturus essem 


Imperative— 


Act. j^ er \ ferto |^ er ^ e j ferunto 
IfertoJ IfertoteJ 

Pas. \ fertor ferimini, feruntor 

IfertorJ 






VERBS. 


93 



Infinitive—- 

Pres. 

Perf. 

Fut. 


/ Act. ferre 
l Pas. ferri 
f Act. tulisse 
l Pas. latus (-a, -um) esse 
/ Act. laturus (-a, -um) esse 
iPas. latum iri 


Gerund— 


ferendum, -i, &c. 


Supines—- 


i. latum, 2. latu 


Participles— 

Act. pres, ferens, fut. laturus 
Pas. perf. latus, ger. ferendus 


(/) Edo, edere (or esse), edi, esum {l eat). 


Indicative — 


Pres. 


8 do 



edlmus ( ed « is ) 
lestis J 


edunt 


Primary 


Perf. 

Fut. Simp. 
Fut. Perf. 


edi, &c. 

edam, edes, &c. 
edero, &c. 


{ Imperf. 
Preter. 
Pluperf. 


edebam, &c. 
edi, See. 
ederam, Sec. 


Subjunctive— 

{ Pres. 

PERF. 

Fut. 
f Imperf. 

Historic < Pluperf. 
[fut. 


f edam, edas, &c. 
ledim, edis, Sec. 
ederim, &c. 
esurus (-a, -um) sim 

ederem, Sec. 
essem, Sec. 
edissem, Sec. 
esurus (-a, -um) essem 


94 


LATIN GRAMMAR. [137- 


Imperative— 


rede ") 

1 redite 

1 ) 

jes 1 

[edito I este 

! editote ( 

j edito | 

[ esto ) editote 1 

[estote ( 

lesto J 

[estote J 

1 J 


edunto 


Infinitive— 

Pres. 

Perf. 

Fut. 


f edere 
\esse 
edisse 

esurus (-a, -um) esse 


Gerund— 


edendum, -i, &c. 


Supines—• 

i. esum, 2. esu 

Participles— 

Pres. Sdens 

Fut. esurus, *a, -um 

Gerundive edendus, -a, -um 


(g) queo, I am capable , and nequeo, lam incapable , are 
conjugated like eo, but have no imperative, 
future participle, or gerund. 

(Ji) facio, I make , has sometimes faxo, faxis, for the 
future indicative simple or perfect, and faxim 
for the perfect subjunctive. 

NB .— facio when compounded with a preposition 
forms its passive regularly, as— 

conficio, I finish; conficior, lam finished. 

(i) do, I give, in old writers, has duim for dem in pres¬ 
ent subjunctive. 

N.B. —do, in composition, is of the 3d Conjuga¬ 
tion, except: circumdo, I set round; pessum- 
do, I nun; venumdo, I set for sale; satisdo, 
I give seairity , which follow do precisely. 


138-] VERBS. 95 

138. Table of Verbs forming their principal parts irregu¬ 
larly, but other parts regularly from these— 

I. FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Pres. Infin. Perf. Supine. 

Usual form : (a-o) -o -are a-vi a-tum 

amo -are ama-vi ama-tum 






Exceptions. 


(I) 

1. 

Pres. 

crepo 

Infin. 

-are 

Perf. 

crepui 

Supine. 

crepitum 

creak 


2. 

cubo 

-are 

cubui 

cubitum 

lie down 


3 - 

domo 

-are 

domui 

domitum 

tame 


4 - 

mico 

-are 

micui 

. • • 

glitter 


5 - 

plico 

-are 

-plicui 

-plicitum 

fold 


6. 

sono 

-are 

sonui 

sonitum 

sound 


7 - 

tono 

-are 

tonui 

tonitum 

thunder 


8. 

veto 

-are 

vetui 

vetitum 

forbid 

( 2 ) 


seco 

-are 

secui 

sectum 

cut 

( 3 ) 

1. 

do 

-are 

dedi 

datum 

give 


2. 

sto 

-are 

steti 

statum 

stand 

( 4 ) 

1. 

juvo 

-are 

juvi 

jutum 

help 


2. 

lavo 

•are 

lavi 

lotum 

7 uash 


(1)5. Also plicavi, plicatum. -plicui, -plicitum — forms thus 
noted are only used in the compounds. 

(3) 1. do, dare, has short a throughout; with the compounds cir- 

cumdo, surround; pessumdo, ruin; venumdo, put on 
sale , which form -dedi, -datum. The other compounds 
pass to the 3d Conjugation, and form -didi, -ditum. 

2. Comp, ad-, con-, ob-, per-, prae-sto, &c., form stiti, statum 
(-stitum rare). 

(4) 2. Also sup. lavatum. 

II. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Pres. Infin. Perf. Supine. 

Usual form : -eo -ere -ui -itum 

mon-eo -ere mon-ui mon-itum 


96 LATIN GRAMMAR. [ 138 . 


Exceptions. 


(I) 

1. 

Fres. 

deleo 

Infin. 

-ere 

Perf. 

delevi 

Supine. 

deletum 

blot out 


2. 

fieo 

-ere 

flevi 

fletum 

weep 


3 - 

-pleo 

-ere 

-plevi 

-pletum 

fill 

(2) 

1. 

doceo 

-ere 

docui 

doctum 

teach 


2. 

misceo 

-ere 

miscui 

mistum 

mix 


3 - 

teneo 

-ere 

tenui 

-tentum 

hold 

( 3 ) 

1. 

augeo 

-ere 

auxi 

auctum 

increase 


2. 

torqueo 

-ere 

torsi 

tortum 

twist 

3 - 

lugeo 

-ere 

luxi 

• • • 

mourn 

( 4 ) 

1. 

mulceo 

-ere 

mulsi 

mulsum 

soothe 


2. 

ardeo 

-ere 

arsi 

arsum 

take fire 


3 - 

rideo 

-ere 

risi 

risum 

laugh 


4 - 

suadeo 

-ere 

suasi 

suasum 

advise 


5 - 

maneo 

-ere 

mansi 

mansum 

remain 


6 . 

jubeo 

-ere 

jussi 

jussum 

command 


7 - 

haereo 

-ere 

haesi 

haesum 

stick 


8 . 

fulgeo 

-ere 

fulsi 

... 

glitter 


9 - 

luceo 

-ere 

luxi 

... 

shine 

( 5 ) 

1. 

mordeo 

-ere 

momordi 

morsum 

bite 


2. 

pendeo 

-ere 

pependi 

pensum 

hang 


3 * 

spondeo 

-ere 

spopondi 

sponsum 

pledge, promise 


4- 

tondeo 

-ere 

totondi 

tonsum 

shear 

(6) 

1 . 

prandeo 

-ere 

prandi 

pransum 

lunch, dine 


2. 

sedeo 

-ere 

sedi 

sessum 

sit 


0 

j- 

video 

-ere 

vidi 

visum 

see 

( 7 ) 

1. 

caveo 

-ere 

cavi 

cautum 

beware 


2. 

faveo 

-ere 

favi 

fautum 

favour 


3 - 

foveo 

-ere 

fovi 

fotum 

cherish 


4- 

moveo 

-ere 

movi 

motum 

move 


5 - 

voveo 

-ere 

vovi 

votum 

vow 

(8) 

1 . 

audeo 

-ere 

Semi-deponent. 

ausus sum 

dare 


2. 

gaudeo 

-ere 

gavisus sum 

rejoice 


3 - 

soleo 

-ere 

solitussum 

be wont 


138.] 


VERBS. 


97 


III. THIRD CONJUGATION. 


Form various, reg-ere ; indu-ere. 



Pres. 

Infin. 

Perf. 

Supine. 


(1) I. 

dico 

-ere 

dixi 

dictum 

say 

2. 

duco 

-ere 

duxi 

ductum 

lead 

3 * 

cingo 

-ere 

cinxi 

cinctum 

surround 

4 - 

coquo 

-ere 

coxi 

coctum 

cook 

5 - 

figo 

-ere 

fixi 

fixum 

fix 

6. 

fingo 

-ere 

finxi 

fictum 

fashion 

7 - 

jungo 

-ere 

junxi 

junctum 

join 

8. 

pingo 

-ere 

pinxi 

pictum 

paint 

9 - 

rego 

-ere 

rexi 

rectum 

rule 

10. 

tego 

-ere 

texi 

tectum 

cover 

11. 

-stinguo 

-ere 

-stinxi 

-stinctum 

quench 

12. 

tinguo 

-ere 

tinxi 

tinctum 

dye 

13 - 

unguo 

-ere 

unxi 

unctum 

anoint 

(2) 1. 

traho 

-ere 

traxi 

tractum 

draw 

2. 

veho 

-ere 

vexi 

vectum 

carry 

3 - 

vivo 

-ere 

vixi 

victum 

live 

4 - 

fluo 

-ere 

fluxi 

fluxum 

flow 

5 - 

struo 

-ere 

struxi 

structum 

pile 

6. 

-lacio 

-ere 

-lexi 

-lectum 

entice 

7 - 

-specio 

-ere 

-spexi 

-spectum 

espy 

( 3 ) 1. 

mergo 

-ere 

mersi 

mersum 

drown 

2. 

spargo 

-ere 

sparsi 

sparsum 

sprinkle 

3 - 

tergo 

-ere 

tersi 

tersum 

wipe 

( 4 ) 1. 

claudo 

-ere 

clausi 

clausum 

shut 

2. 

divido 

-ere 

divisi 

divisum 

divide 

3 - 

laedo 

-ere 

laesi 

laesum 

hurt 

4 - 

ludo 

-ere 

lusi 

lusum 

play 

5 - 

plaudo 

-ere 

plausi 

plausum 

clap the hands 

6. 

rado 

-ere 

rasi 

rasum 

scrape 

7 . 

rodo 

-ere 

rosi 

rosum 

gnaw 

8 . 

trudo 

-ere 

trusi 

trusum 

thrust 

9 - 

vado 

-ere 

-vasi 

-vasum 

go 

10. 

cedo ' 

-ere 

cessi 

cessum 

yield 

11. 

mitto 

-ere 

misi 

missum 

send 

12. 

quat-io 

-ere 

(quassi) 

quassum 

shake 

13 - 

flecto 

-ere 

flexi 

flexum 

bend 

14. 

necto 

-ere 

nexi 

nexum 

bind 


G 


98 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



Pres. 

Infin. 

Perf. 

Supine. 


(5) 1 . 

carpo 

-ere 

carpsi 

carptum 

pluck 

2 

repo 

-ere 

repsi 

reptum 

creep 

3 . 

scalpo 

-ere 

scalpsi 

scalptum 

scratch 

4 - 

serpo 

-ere 

(serpsi) 

(serptum) 

crawl 

5 - 

nubo 

-ere 

nupsi 

nuptum 

be married 

6. 

scribo 

-ere 

scripsi 

scriptum 

write 

(6) 1. 

como 

-ere 

compsi 

comptum 

adorn 

2. 

demo 

-ere 

dempsi 

demptum 

take away 

3 - 

promo 

-ere 

prompsi 

promptum 

take forth 

4 - 

sumo 

-ere 

sump si 

sumptum 

take 

5 - 

temno 

-ere 

tempsi 

temptum 

despise 

6. 

premo 

-ere 

pressi 

pressum 

press 

7 - 

gero 

-ere 

gessi 

gestum 

carry on 

8. 

uro 

-ere 

ussi 

ustum 

burn 

(7) 1 . 

elicio 

-ere 

elicui 

elicitum 

entice forth 

2. 

-cumbo 

-ere 

cubui 

cubitum 

lie down 

3 - 

rapio 

-ere 

rapui 

raptum 

seize 

4 - 

strepo 

-ere 

strepui 

strepitum 

7 'oar 

5 - 

meto 

-ere 

messui 

messum 

mow 

6. 

alo 

-ere 

alui 

altum 

nourish 

7 - 

colo 

-ere 

colui 

cultum 

till 

8. 

consulo 

-ere 

consului 

consultum 

C07lSUlt 

9 - 

occulo 

-ere 

occului 

occultum 

hide 

10. 

volo 

velle 

volui 

• • • 

wish 

11. 

fremo 

-ere 

fremui 

fremitum 

murmur 

12. 

gemo 

-ere 

gemui 

gemitum 

groan 

13 - 

tremo 

-ere 

tremui 

• • • 

tremble 

14- 

vomo 

-ere 

vomui 

vomitum 

vomit 

15- 

pono 

-ere 

posui 

positum 

place 

16. 

gigno 

-ere 

genui 

genitum 

produce 

17- 

sero 

-ere 

serui 

sertum 

join 

18. 

texo 

-ere 

texui 

textum 

"weave 

(8) 1. 

lino 

. -ere 

levi 

litum 

smear 

2. 

sino 

-ere 

sivi 

situm 

allow 

3 - 

cemo 

-ere 

crevi 

cretum 

sift, discern 

4 - 

sperno 

-ere 

sprevi 

spretum 

despise 

5 - 

sterno 

-ere 

stravi 

stratum 

strew 

6. 

sero 

-ere 

sevi 

satum 

sow 


[138. 


VERBS. 


99 


138.] 



Pres. 

I a fin. 

Perf. 

Supine. 


7. 

cresco 

-ere 

crevi 

cretum 

grow [with 

8 . 

nosco 

-ere 

novi 

notum 

become acquainted 

9 - 

pasco 

-ere 

pavi 

pastum 

feed 

10. 

quiesco 

-ere 

quievi 

... 

rest 

11. 

suesco 

-ere 

suevi 

. suetum 

be wont 

12. 

cupio 

-ere 

cupivi 

cupitum 

desire 

U. 

peto 

-ere 

petivi 

petitum 

seek 

14. 

quaero 

-ere 

quaesivi 

quaesitum 

seek 

I 5 - 

tero 

-ere 

trivi 

tritum 

rub 

16. 

arcesso 

-ere 

arcessivi 

arcessitum 

sendfor 

17 - 

lacesso 

-ere 

lacessivi 

lacessitum 

provoke 


Reduplicates. 


(9) 1. pendo 

-ere 

pependi 

. pensum 

weigh 

2. tendo 

-ere 

tetendi 

tensum( -tumjstretch 

3. disco 

-ere 

didici 

... 

learn 

4. posco 

-ere 

poposci 

• . . 

demand 

5. curro 

-ere 

cucurri 

cursum 

run 

6. pungo 

-ere 

pupugi 

punctum 

prick 

7. tundo 

-ere 

tutudi 

tunsum 

thump 

8. fallo 

-ere 

fefelli 

falsum 

deceive 

9. parco 

-ere 

peperci 

parsum 

spare 

10. pario 

-ere 

peperi 

partum 

bring forth 

11. cado 

-ere 

cecidi 

casum 

fall 

12. cano 

-ere 

cecini 

cantum 

sing 

13. pango 

-ere 

pepigi 

pactum 

fasten 

14. tango 

-ere 

tetigi 

tactum 

touch 

15. caedo 

-ere 

cecidi 

caesum 

cut, beat , kill 

16. pello 

-ere 

pepuli 

pulsum 

drive 

17. tollo 

-ere 

sustuli 

sublatum 

take up 

18. Compounds 

of do: 




abdo 

-ere 

abdidi 

abditum 

hide 

addo 

-ere 

addidi 

additum 

add 

condo 

-ere 

condidi 

conditum 

found, hide 

credo 

-ere 

credidi 

creditum 

believe 

dedo 

-ere 

dedidi 

deditum 

give up 

edo 

-ere 

edidi 

editum 

give forth , utter 

perdo 

-ere 

perdidi 

perditum 

lose 

prodo 

-ere 

prodidi 

proditum 

betray 


100 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[138. 



Pres. 

Infin. 

Perf. 

Supine. 



reddo 

-ere 

reddidi 

redditum 

restore 


subdo 

-ere 

subdidi 

subditum 

substitute 


trado 

-ere 

tradidi 

traditum 

deliver 


vendo 

-ere 

vendidi 

venditum 

sell 

19 - 

Reduplicated from sto: 




sisto 

-ere 

stiti 

statum 

make to stand 



(9) 9. Also perf. parsi. 


Go) 1. 

facio 

-ere 

feci 

factum 

make 

2. 

jacio 

-ere 

jeci 

j actum 

throw 

3 - 

linquo 

-ere 

liqui 

-lictum 

leave 

4 - 

vinco 

-ere 

vici 

victum 

conquer 

5 - 

ago 

-ere 

egi 

actum 

do 

6. 

frango 

-ere 

fregi 

fractum 

break 

7 - 

lego 

-ere 

legi 

lectum 

choose , read 

8. 

fugio 

-ere 

fugi 

fugitum 

fly 

9 - 

edo 

-ere 

edi 

esum 

eat 

10. 

fodio 

-ere 

fodi 

fossum 

dig 

11. 

fundo 

-ere 

fudi 

fusum 

pour 

12. 

capio 

-ere 

cepi 

captum 

take 

i 3 - 

rumpo 

-ere 

rupi 

ruptum 

break 

14. 

enio 

-ere 

emi 

emptum 

buy , take 

(n) 1. 

findo 

-ere 

fidi 

fissum 

cleave 

2. 

scindo 

-ere 

scidi 

scissum 

tear 

(12) 1. 

-cando 

-ere 

-cendi 

-censum 

set on fire 

2. 

-fendo 

-ere 

-fendi 

-fensum 

stiike 

3 - 

pando 

-ere 

pandi 

pansum 

spread 

4 - 

prehendo 

-ere 

prehendi 

prehensum 

grasp 

5 - 

scando 

-ere 

scandi 

scansum 

climb 

6. 

verto 

-ere 

verti 

versum 

turn 

7 - 

bibo 

-ere 

bibi 

bibitum 

drink 

8. 

vello 

-ere 

velli, vulsi vulsum 

rend 

( 13 ) i- 

acuo 

-ere 

acui 

acutum 

sharpen 

2. 

arguo 

-ere 

argui 

argutum 

prove 

n 

0- 

exuo 

-ere 

exui 

exutum 

ptit off 

4 - 

imbuo 

-ere 

irnbui 

imbutum 

tinge 

5 - 

induo 

-ere 

indui 

indutum 

put 071 

6. 

luo 

-ere 

lui 

luitum 

wash , atone 

7 - 

metuo 

-ere 

metui 

• • • 

fear 


138 -] 


VERBS. 


IOI 


8 . 

Pres. 

Infin. 

Perf. 

Supine. 


minuo 

-ere 

minui 

minutum 

lessen 

9 - 

nuo 

-ere 

nui 

• • • 

nod 

10. 

ruo 

-ere 

rui 

ruitum 

rush, fall 

11. 

statuo 

-ere 

statui 

statutum 

set up 

12. 

tribuo 

-ere 

tribui 

tributum 

assign 

13 - 

solvo 

-ere 

solvi 

solutum 

loosen 

14. 

volvo 

-ere 

volvi 

volutum 

roll 


IV. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 


Usual form : -io 

audio 


-ire -ivi -itum 

-ire audivi auditum. 


Exceptions. 




Pres. 

Infin. 

Perf. 

Supine. 


(1) 

1. 

aperio 

-ire 

aperui 

apertum 

open 


2. 

operio 

-ire 

operui 

opertura 

cover 


3 - 

salio 

-ire 

salui 

(-sultum) 

leap 


4 - 

sepelio 

-ire 

sepelivi 

sepultum 

bury 

(2) 

1. 

fulcio 

-ire 

fulsi 

fultum 

prop 


2. 

sancio 

-ire 

sanxi 

sanctum 

consecrate 


3 - 

vincio 

-ire 

vinxi 

vinctum 

bind 


4 - 

haurio 

-ire 

hausi 

haustum 

drain 


5 - 

sentio 

-ire 

sensi 

sensum 

feel 

( 3 ) 

1. 

comperio 

-ire 

comperi 

compertum 

find 


2. 

reperio 

-ire 

repperi 

repertum 

discover 


3 - 

venio 

-ire 

veni 

ventum 

come 


V. DEPONENT VERBS. 

(1) First Conjugation (part. perf. -atus). 

(2) Second Conjugation (part. perf. -itus). 


Exceptions. 



Pres. 

Infin. 

Part. Perf. 


1. 

fateor 

-eri 

fassus 

confess. 

2. 

misereor 

-eri 

misertus or miserltus 

have pity on 

3 - 

reor 

-eri 

ratus 

think 


102 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 



(3) Third Conjugation (part. perf. -tus or -sus). 



Pres. 

Infin. 

Part. Perf. 


(a) 1. 

fungor 

-i 

functus 

perform 

2. 

amplector 

-i 

amplexus 

embrace 

3 - 

nitor 

-i 

nisus or nixus 

strive 

4 - 

patior 

-i 

passus 

suffer 

5 - 

utor 

-i 

usus 

use 

6 . 

gradior 

-i 

gressus 

step 

7 - 

labor 

-i 

lapsus 

glide 

8 . 

morior 

-i 

mortuus 

die 

9 - 

queror 

-i 

questus 

complain 

10. 

fruor 

-i 

fruitus 

enjoy 

11. 

loquor 

-i 

locutus 

speak 

12. 

sequor 

-i 

secutus 

follow 

(?>) 1. 

apiscor 

-i 

aptus 

obtain 

2. 

comminiscor 

-i 

commentus 

devise 

3 - 

expergiscor 

-i 

experrectus 

wake up 

4 - 

fatiscor 

-i 

fessus 

grow weary 

5 - 

irascor 

-i 

iratus 

be angry 

6 . 

nanciscor 

-i 

nactus 

obtain 

7 . 

nascor 

-i 

natus 

be born 

8 . 

obliviscor 

-i 

oblitus 

forget 

9 - 

paciscor 

-i 

pactus 

bargain 

10. 

proficiscor 

-i 

profectus 

set out 

11. 

ulciscor 

-i 

ultus 

avenge 


(4) Fourth Conjugation (part. perf. -itus). 
Exceptions. 



Pres. 

Infin. 

Part. Perf. 


1. 

assentior 

-iri 

assensus 

agree to 

2. 

experior 

-iri 

expertus 

try 

0- 

metior 

-iri 

mensus 

measure 

4 - 

opperior 

• • • 
-in 

oppertus 

wait for 

5 * 

ordior 

-iri 

orsus 

begin 

6 . 

orior 

-iri 

ortus 

rise 


139-140 ] PARTICLES OR INDECLINABLE WORDS. 103 


PARTICLES OR INDECLINABLE WORDS. 

N.B. —A particle which cannot stand alone, but must 
be joined to another word, is called an enclitic. 

139. Adverbs. 

(1) Simple adverbs which qualify a verb or adjective 

in their own clause are interrogative or demon¬ 
strative, as— 

(i) Of place, ubi ? where ? ibi, there. 

(ii) Of time, quando ? when ? turn, then. 

(iii) Of number, quotiens ? how often ? bis, twice 

(iv) Of description, quomodo? how? sapienter, wisely. 

(v) Negative, non, haud = not. 

(vi) Of question, num, nonne, -ne (enclitic) = ? 

(2) Connective adverbs which, besides qualifying a 

word in their own clause, connect that clause 
with another, as— 

Quum, '■when; dum, whilst; ubi, where; ut, that, as; 
si, if. (265 a.) 

A T .B. —In Latin an adverb is used to develop an 
idea contained in the verb it qualifies, but not 
to add a new idea. Thus we can say, celeriter 
cucurrit (he ran swiftly ), but not fortiter cucurrit 
(he ran pluckily). 


140 . Prepositions. 

(1) The following prepositions take the accusative :— 


ad, 

to, at. 

circa, 

about. 

adversus 

- towards, against. 

cis, citra, 

on the near side. 

adversum J 

contra, 

against. 

ante, 

before. - 

erga, 

towards. 

apud, 

at, away. 

extra, 

outside of. 

circum, 

around. 

infra, 

below. 


104 

LATIN 

GRAMMAR. 

[140, 

inter, 

between. 

prseter, 

besides. 

intra, 

within. 

prope, 

near. 

juxta, 

near. 

propter, 

on account of near. 

ob, 

over against, by reason of. 

secundum, 

according to, along. 

penes, 

in the power of. 

supra, 

above. 

per, 

through. 

trans, 

on the far side. 

pone, 

behind. 

ultra, 

beyond. 

post, 

after. 

versus, versum, 

towards. 


(2) The following take the ablative:— 


a, ab, abs, by, from. 
absque, without. 


clam, 
coram, 
cum, 
de, 
ex, e, 


without the knowledge of. P rse ’ 
in presence of. pro, 

with. sine, 

from, concerning. tenus, 

out of,\ from. 


palam, in sight of. 

f before, owing to, compared 
l with. 

before, for, instead of. 
without. 

reaching to, as far as. 


(3) The following take the accusative or ablative 
according to the notion expressed :— 

(into, against (acc.) (up to (acc.) 

in \ in, among (abl.) SU ’ \under (abl.) 

super, over. subter, under. 

N.B. —( 1 ) Cum with pronouns and relatives is en¬ 
clitic— 

Mecum, nobiscum, tecum, vobiscum, secum, quocum 
or quicum, quibuscum. 

N.B. — ( 2 ) Clam rarely takes the accusative. 

N.B. —(3) Versus and tenus follow their case, as— 

Romam versus ( toivards Rome). 

^Ethiopia tenus {as far as Ethiopia). 


Also the adverbial ergo, sometimes called a preposi¬ 
tion, is followed by a genitive— 

Cujus rei ergo {for the sake of which). 


141-142.] INTERJECTIONS. 105 

(4) Cum in composition becomes con or com ( com¬ 
position ]). 

141. Conjunctions couple without qualifying [265 N.B., 

286, 28 6a\. 

142. Interjections are exclamatory words used to draw 

attention or to express feeling, as— 

0 (0 !); eheu (alas !) ecce (behold!) 

N.B. —(1) 0 , a, eheu, pro, may be used with a 
nominative, vocative, or accusative. 

N.B. —(2) En and ecce with nominative or ac¬ 
cusative. 

N.B. —(3) Hei, vae, with dative. 


[T43-200.] 


SYNTAX. 


The pages on the left contain the Text, those on the right the 
Notes. The letter a after a number indicates notes on that 
paragraph of the text. 

*** Syntax deals with the structure of sentences. 

Every sentence must contain a finite verb, stating, 
asking , or ordering something. 

That about which the statement is made, or the 
question is asked, or to which the order is 
given, is the subject. 

Many verbs require another word to complete their 
sense. Such word is their complement. 


VERB AND SUBJECT. 

201. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative, 
and the verb agrees with it in number and person— 

Praeceptor docet. The master teaches. 

Abite vos. Go you away. 

Docetne praeceptor ? Does the master teach ? 



20I<7.] 


VERB AND SUBJECT. 


107 


201a. Case-Notions— 

Cases are not used indifferently. The same fundamental notion is 
always attached to the same case. 

Nominative = Subject of a finite verb. 

Accusative = Term or range of an action. Subject of an infinitive. 
Dative = Remote object affected or effected by an action or 
quality. 

Genitive —Qualifies nouns as an adjective. 

Ablative —Qualifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as an adverb. 
Locative —Also adverbial. 

Vocative —Interjectional. 

N.B. —The meaning and use of the accusative and ablative 
may be enlarged by prepositions, without departure from 
the fundamental case-notion, thus—• 

Eo Romam = I go to Rome; ... ad Romam = to its 
neighbourhood ; ... Romam versus = towards 

Rome; ... in Romam = against it. 

( 1 ) Often in Latin the subject is not separately expressed, being con¬ 

tained in the person-ending of the verb— 

Amaba-m = I was loving; amaba-mus = we were loving. 
When the subject is expressed twice, once separately and once in 
the verb, it must be the same, as to number and person, in 
both cases. 

( 2 ) Besides a noun substantive or pronoun, the subject maybe— 

(a) An infinitive or gerund (verbal noun), as — 

Ludere juvat. Playing is pleasant. 

Legendum est mihi. I must read — reading is for me. 

(/3) A noun clause —■ 

Csesarem adesse constat. It is certain that Ccesar is at hand. 

( 3 ) (a) A compound subject is plural though its parts be singular— 

Ccesar atque Pompeius compares erant. Ccesar and Pompey 
were much alike. 

N.B. —If conjoined nouns form one idea , the verb is singular— 

Senatus populusque decrevit. The senate and people 
has decreed. 

(Compare “ Early to bed and early to rise makesfi &c.) 

(j 8 ) A subject is of the 1 st person if any of its parts be so; 
and of the 2 d if any part be of the 2 d and none of 
the 1 st— 

Ego et tu et Ccesar bene valemus. You and Ccesar and 
I are well. 


ioS 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[202-205 


VERB AND COMPLEMENT. 

202. A copulative verb couples with its subject another 
word to qualify it— 

Caesar fit consul. Ccesar is made consul. 

Cicero erat doctus. Cicero was learned. 

Domini est terra. The earth is the Lord's. 

N.B. —For the construction of words qualifying 
nouns, see 206-208. 

203. —( 1 ) A transitive verb takes an accusative of the 
direct object— 

Pater amat filium. The father loves his son. 

(2) The direct object of the active verb becomes the 
subject of the passive— 

Filius a patre amatur. The son is loved by his father. 

(3) A factitive verb couples with its direct object 
another word to qualify it— 

Caesarem creant dictatorem. They make Ccesar dictator. 

N.B .—Factitive verbs become copulative in the 
passive— 

Caesar dictator creatur. Ccesar is made dictator. 

204. —A modal verb takes an infinitive to complete its 
sense— 

Soleo dicere. / am wont to say. 

Cogor abire. / am forced to go. 

205. —A trajective word takes a dative of the indirect 
object— 

Noceo tibi. I do you harm. 

Urbi appropinquat. He draws near the city. 

Virgilium comparo Homero. I compare Virgil to Homer. 

N.B.— Trajective words include not verbs only , but adjec¬ 
tives and adverbs. See rules for the dative , 227-234. 


203a-205<z.] VERB AND COMPLEMENT. IO 9 

Tu et Cicero fuistis consules. You and Cicero have been 
consuls. 

N.B .— The 1 st person comes first in Latin— 

“ My king and I ” = ego et rex jneus. 

( 4 ) When the subject is a collective noun in the singular, the 
verb is plural if the idea of plurality be prominent— 
Multitudo abeunt. The crowd depart. 

Pars capti sunt. Some were taken. 

Juventus ruit certantque. The youth rushes out — in 
a body — and fight — individually. 

203a. ( 1 ) Participles, gerunds, and supines take the same cases as 
do their verbs— 

Alios docendo doctus fies. By teaching others you will 
beco7ne learned. 

Legatos misit rogatum auxilium. He sent envoys to ask 
for help. 

( 2 ) The direct object may be— 

An infinitive, as— 

Ludere amat. He loves playing, 

A noun clause, as— 

Csesarem adesse cerno. I perceive that Ccesar is at hand. 
Qucerit quis fecerit. He asks who has done it. 


204a .—Modal verbs are so called because their statement regards 
only the mode, or manner, of an action. Thus— 

Soleo dicere = / habitually say. 

Cogor abir e = !go on compulsion. 

205a. 

* f Words qualifying nouns may be attributes or predicates. 
They are— 

Attributes if assumed to belong to them (joined 
directly to them). 

Predicates if asserted to belong to them (joined by 

a verb. 

Note this distinction in the examples given. 


I IO 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[206-208. 


The above rules regard sentences reduced to their 
essential parts. 

Qualifications may be added to nouns, verbs, and 
adjectives. 

These qualifications may be words or clauses. Clauses 
may also take the place of nouns. 

Phrases, or collections of words not making complete 
sense, are treated as words. 


QUALIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

*** A noun may be qualified— 

(1) By another noun naming the same thing. 

(2) By an adjective. 

(3) By another noun naming a different thing. 

(4) By a relative clause. 

206. A noun qualifying another noun naming the same 
thing agrees with it in case, and is said to be in apposi¬ 
tion with it— 

Caesar fit consul. Ccesar is made consul. 

Urbem Athenas incendit Xerxes. Xerxes burnt the city of 
Athens. 

207. An adjective qualifying a noun agrees with it in 
gender, number, and case— 

Pius Tineas. The good rEneas. 

Hac in re. In this matter. 

Mei sunt libri. The books are mine. 


208.—( 1 ) A noun qualifying another noun which names 
a different thing is in the genitive— 

Urbi Galliae. A city of Gaul. 

Omnia sunt victoris. All is the conqueror’s. 

Est regis punire rebelles. It is the king’s province to punish 
rebels. 


2o6a-20$a.] QUALIFICATION OF NOUNS. 


I I I 


207 ^ 0 . Nouns i n apposition may differ in gender and number— 

Cicero decus patriae. Cicero the ornament of his country. 
Filins deliciae matris. A son his mother's darling. 

*** Words are conjoined when they are linked together, not 
qualifying one another. 

(2) (i) Nouns conjoined are treated as plurals, and as masculines 

if persons are named and one be masculine— 

Pater mihi et mater cari sunt. My father and mother 
are dear to me. 

(ii) When things without life are named, they are treated as 

neuter if the genders differ— 

Gloria divitiae honores caduca sunt. Glory, wealth, and 
honour are fleeting. 

N.B .—But sometimes the verb or adjective agrees with the 
nearest noun— 

Mens et animus et consilium et sententia civitatis 
posita est in legibus. The mind, soul, pur¬ 
pose, and feeling of the State abides in its laws. 

(iii) Infinitives and noun clauses are neuter. 

( 3 ) When a class of things is spoken of, a masculine or feminine 

noun may have a neuter predicate— 

Triste lupus stabulis. The wolf is a sad thing for sheep- 
folds. 

Varium et mutabile femina. Woman is a fickle and 
changeful thing. 

Turpitudo pejus est quam dolor. Disgrace is something 
worse than pain. 


208ci. ( 1 ) The genitive has usually the force of a determinative 
adjective (genitive of definition)— 

(i) As the possessive of words having no possessive adjective 
form. (When such form exists, the genitive is not used for 
possession)— 

Hsec sunt Csesaris ilia mea (not met). These things 
are Caesar's, those are mine. 

N.B .—With proper names of gods, sedes (the temple) or 
domus (the house) is sometimes understood— 


I 12 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[208. 

( 2 ) Nouns derived from transitive verbs may take a 
genitive of the subject or of the object of the 
verb— 

[Subjective) Serpentis morsus. The bite of a snake. 

(< Objective ) Amor glorias. Desire of glory. 

( 3 ) Adjectives derived from transitive verbs take a 
genitive of the object— 

Avidus glorias. Desirous of glory. 


N.B. —( 1 ) Any word having a partitive force takes 
a genitive of that whereto the part belongs— 

Multum pecunias. Ahtch money. 

Quid rei ? What is the matter ? 

Senior fratrum. The elder of the brothers. 

Satis nivis. Snow enough. 


(2) A genitive with verbs or adjectives defines the 
nature of a noun implied in them— 

Avidus gloriae = possessed by desire of glory. 

(Compare “ bloodthirsty A') 

Arguit furti =he brings a charge of theft. 


RELATIVE CLAUSE. 

*** A Relative adjective points to a preceding noun 
(its antecedent), and connects it with a new 
predicate. 

Relative and antecedent stand in separate clauses. 
The relative clause qualifies the antecedent. 


20Stf.] 


RELATIVE CLAUSE. 


11 3 

Ventum erat ad Vestse. We had come to Vesta's 
shrine. 

Ad Caesaris. To Ccesar's house. 

(Compare “At St Paul's.”) 

(ii) As a demonstrative, defining the class to which a thing 
belongs— 

Pondus auri. A mass of gold. 

Pars hominum. A part of the men. 

Fies nobilium fontium. You will be one of the storied 
founts. 

( 2 ) (i) The genitive can be used as an adjective of quality or 

quantity only when an attribute is added— 

Vir priscse severitatis. A man of antique rigour. 

Ager quadraginta jugerum. The forty-acre field. 

(ii) For the genitive of quality the ablative may be substituted— 

Vir prisca severitate. A man {endowed) with aiitique 
rigour. 

(iii) Possessive adjectives may, like genitives, be used with verbal 

nouns subjectively or objectively— 

f my fear (of some one). 

Timor meus = \ J , . . . 

l(some one s) fear of me. 

(iv) The genitive of a gerundive used with sum, in Livy and 
later writers, denotes the effect towards which something 
tends— 

Concordia dissolvendse tribunicise potestatis est. Har¬ 
mony tends to undo the tribune's power. 

( 3 ) A possessive may be omitted when no ambiguity can follow— 

Filium amo. I love my son. 

( 4 ) Rarely the name of a town is put in the genitive with another 

noun naming the same— 

Urbs Patavi (Livy). The city of Padua. 

In oppido Antiochlse (Cicero). In the town of Antioch. 

( 5 ) The adjectival nature of the genitive is shown in the words 

hujusmodi, ejusmodi, cujusmodi, See., which are used as 
indeclinable adjectives, thus— 

Hujusmodi vir = tf man of this sort. 

Hujusmodi viri = men of this sort. 

Also in such phrases as— 

Sua ipsius res. His own matter. 

H 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[209-210. 


I 14 

209.—( 1 ) The number and gender of the relative are 
those of the antecedent. 

Its case is that in which the antecedent would be if 
repeated in the relative clause. 

(2) Words agreeing with the relative are of that 
gender, number, and person which the antecedent 
if repeated would require— 

Caesar quem interfecit Brutus haec scripsit. Ccesar , 

whom Brutus killed, wrote this. 

Nobis qui adsumus placet hoc. This seems good to us 
who are present. 

Tu dea es quae mecum loqueris. Thou art a goddess 

who speakest with me. 


CASES WITH VERBS AND ADJECTIVES. 

* % * ( 1 ) Verbs and adjectives are qualified by adverbs, 
or by nouns used adverbially, adding circum¬ 
stances of description , time , place , or amount. 

*** (2) All cases attached to verbs except the accusa¬ 
tive of the direct object may be considered to be 
adverbial adjuncts. They are retained by the 
verb in the passive. 


DESCRIPTION: Cause , Manner, Instrument. 

210.—( 1 ) Cause, manner, and instrument are expressed 
by the ablative with verbs or adjectives— 

Metu pallet. He is pale with fear. 

Ardet ira. He is on fire with rage. 

Dimidio major. Half as large again. 

Captus oculis. Blind. 

Cornu nos petit taurus. The bull assails us with his 
horn. 


2oga-2ioa.] CASES WITH VERBS AND ADJECTIVES. I I 5 


209a. ( 1 ) The antecedent is frequently understood in the relative it¬ 
self— 

Qui hoc fecit adstat. He who did this is present. 

N.B. —In such cases the antecedent is is, the natural cor¬ 
relative of qui. 

( 2 ) The relative frequently agrees, by attraction, not with its ante¬ 

cedent but with a noun which follows— 

Thebae quod Boeotioe caput est. Thebes, which is the 

capital of Bceotia. 

(3) Demonstratives may be similarly attracted— 

Colere deos ea est vera pietas. To zvorship the gods, 
this is true wisdom. 

*** I. Infinitives, gerunds, and supines, though nouns, are, by 
reason of their verbal force , qualified by adverbs , not by 
adjectives— 

Latine loqui. Talking Latin. 

Leges Latine scribendi. Rules of Latin -writing. 

N B. —Departures from this usage are very rare— 

Scire tuum nihil est (Persius). Thy knowledge is 
naught. 

II. In like manner nouns and adjectives derived from verbs 

sometimes retain a verbal force, and take the same 
case as does the verb— 

Reditio domum. A return home. 

Castra vitabundus. Avoiding the camp. 

Me auscultatio. A listening to me. 

III. Adjectives used as predicates frequently convey an 

adverbial force— 

Feci invitus. L did it unwillingly. 

(Compare “The rose smells sweet.”) 

In such a case the verb is copulative, and the adjective is 
its complement. 

IV. Prepositions are used whenever the meaning conveyed 

by a case alone would be ambiguous. 

21 Oa. ( 1 ) Of these meanings that of instrument belongs most properly 
to the ablative, and that of cause least so. 

A preposition is therefore often used to distinguish manner 
from instrument, or cause from manner — 


1 1(5 LATIN GRAMMAR. [211-213. 

( 2 ) The ablative of a living agent can be used after 
passive verbs only, and always with a preposi¬ 
tion— 

Cornu a tauro petimur. IVe cv'e assailed by the bull with 
his horn. 

211 . Utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor 
take an ablative; potior sometimes a genitive— 

Utitur fraude. He employs deceit (helps himself by it). 
Carne vescuntur. They live on ?neat (feed themselves 
with it). 


SOURCE AND SEPARATION. 

212. The ablative denotes source or separation— 

Dea natus. Born of a goddess. 

Ex Thetide natus. Born of Thetis. 

Patria ex pulsus. Banished. 

E patria discessit. He left his native land. 

213. —( 1 ) Verbs signifying plenty or want take the 
ablative, rarely the genitive— 

Abundat divitiis. He abounds in riches. 

Caret omni culpa. He is without fault. 

Tui indigeo consilii. I stand in need of your advice. 

( 2 ) Adjectives of plenty or want take the ablative 

or genitive— 

Plenus irae. Full of anger. 

Plenus ira. Filled with anger. 

Dives agris. Rich in land. 

Pauper aquae. Poor in water. 

(3) With opus est and usus est the nominative or 

ablative may be used— 

Dux nobis opus est. We need a leader (a leader is a 
need). 

Nunc viribus usus. Now need we our strength. 

o 


21 1(1-2 13<Z. ] 


SOURCE AND SEPARATION. 


II7 


Virtute vivere = to live by one's valour. 

Cum virtute vivere = to live in company with virtue 
(virtuously). 

Gaudio exsultavit = /^ lumped joyously, 

Prse gaudio exsultavit = he jumped for joy. 

( 2 ) The supine in u is an ablative, and is used with adjectives to 
denote manner— 

Horribile visu = horrible to behold (in the beholding). 


211a. Utor, &c., are middle verbs whose object is the same as the 
subject— 

utor = I help myself. fruor=I enjoy myself. 

fungor = I acquit myself. vescor = I feed myself. 

potior = I possess myself, or I make myself master. 


212a. A preposition adds to the notion of separation or distance, thus — 

Ortus regibus = a king’s son. 

Ortus ab regibus = a distant descendant. 


213a. (i) Verbs or adjectives qualified by a genitive may be considered 
to contain a noun which this genitive qualifies (supra, 208 , 
N.B. 2 ). 

( 2 ) Livy, and later writers, sometimes use the genitive with opus 

and usus— 

Temporis opus est. There is need of time. 

Still more rare is the accusative — 

Opus est cibum (Plautus). We need food. 

( 3 ) Assuetus ( accustomed ) and assuefio (/ become accustomed) take 

the ablative— 

Puro sermone assuefactus. Accustomed to pure speech. 

Also stare = to stand by— 

Stare conditionibus. To stand by the conditions. 


118 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[214-215. 


PLACE. 

214.—( 1 ) For the names of towns, the locative expresses 
place where, the accusative place whither, the ablative 
place whence— 

Romae, Corinthi, Athenis, et Carthagine vixit. He 

lived at Rome, Corinth, Athens, and Carthage. 
Ibimus Coccium. We will go to Ribchester. 

Epheso fugit. He fled from Ephesus. 


(2) The names of islands identified with their capitals 

follow the same rules: also domus (/tome) and 
rus (the country )— 

Confugit Delum. He fled to Delos. 

Domi manet. He stays at home. 

Rure redit. He comes back from the country. 

(3) Other words are used with prepositions— 

In urbe vixit. He lived in the city. 

In Britanniam ivit. He went to Britain. 

E Gallia red i it. He returned from Gaul. 

N.B. — This rule is not strictly adhered to in verse. 


SPACE. 

215. Extent of space is expressed by the accusative_ 

Fossa duodecim pedes alta. A ditch twelve feet deep. 
Tridui iter processit. He advanced a three-days march. 


2I4<Z-2I5#.] 


PLACE—SPACE. 


1 19 

214 a. (1) Locative. So we say at London , at Malta , but not at 
America nor at Ireland. 

(2) The locative is in the singular of the first and second declension 

similar to the genitive. 

In the third declension and all plurals it is similar to the ablative. 

( 3 ) Other locatives are humi (on the ground), belli (at the wars), 

militise (on service), foris (out of doors). 

These are used simply as adverbs : foris is also used of motion 
from. 

(4) The rules for place do not apply when a noun or adjective quali¬ 

fies the name of a town : a preposition must then be used — 
Vixit in urbe Roma. He lived in the city of Rome. 

Ibimus in doctas Athenas. We will go to the learned 
Athens. 

N.B. —(i) But with totus (the whole) and medius (the middle), 
names of towns and countries, or such words as urbs, 
may be ablative without a preposition— 

Media urbe. In the midst of the city. 

Tota Italia. In the whole of Italy. 

(ii) Domus with a possessive adjective may be locative— 
Domi suse. In his own house. 

With other adjectives a preposition is used— 

In vetere domo. In the old home. 

(5) When motion is expressed to or from a person who is at a 

place, the names of both are in the case which is proper to 
such motion— 

Athenas ibo ad amicos. I will go to my friends at 
Athens. 

E Gallia ab exercitu rediit. He returned from the 
army in Gaul. 

(6) The supine in um is an accusative, and is used to express the 

term of motion— 

Eo piscatum. I go a-fisiting. 

Legatos Romam misit rogatum auxilium. He sent 
envoys to Rome to ask for aid. 

215 a. If qualifying a noun, dimension is expressed by the genitive 
(208, i.)— 

Fossa duodecim pedum. A twelve foot ditch. 


120 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[216-219. 


TIME. 

216. Time when or within which is expressed by the 
ablative, extent of time by the accusative— 

Idibus Martiis interfectus est. He ~vas killed on the 
\$th of March. 

Tribus diebus perfectum est opus. The work was done 
in three days. 

Tres annos regnavit. He reigned three years. 

AMOUNT : Price, Worth , Value. 

217. —( 1 ) Price and worth are expressed by the abla¬ 
tive— 

Demosthenes docuit talento. Demosthenes gave lessons 
for a talent. 

Magno id vendidi. I sold it for a large price. 

Asse carum. Dear at a farthing. 

Laude dignus. Worthy of praise. 

Tali me dignor honore. I hold myself worthy of such 
honour. 

(2) The character of value assigned is defined by the 
genitive— 

Magni sunt tuae epistolce. Your letters are highly prized. 
Parvi rem pendet. He makes light of the matter. 

Ilium non hujus facio. I don't care that for him. 

ACCUSATION. 

218. The character of a charge is expressed by the 
genitive— 

Arguit me furti. He accuses me of theft. 

Reus est parricidii. He is arraigned for parricide. 

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

219. —( 1 ) A noun with a participle depending for its 
case on no other word in the sentence is put in the 
ablative absolute— 

Mortuo Romulo regnavit Numa. When Romulus 7oas 
dead, Numa reigned. 

His dictis abiit. Having said this, he went away. 


2i6a-2iga.] TIME—AMOUNT—ACCUSATION. 


I 21 


216a. The interval between two points may be expressed by the accusa¬ 
tive or ablative with ante or post used as adverbs— 

Aliquot post menses. A few months after. 

Multis post annis. Many years later. 

Paucis ante diebus. A few days before. 

217a. (i) The genitives used to define value are— 

magni, much pluris, more (m^ximi } ver ? vinc ^' 

parvi, little minoris, less minimi, very little. 

nihili, not a jot flocci, a straw (“a lock of wool'' 1 ). 

hujus, “ that much.” 

tanti, so much quanti, as or hozu much ? 

And a few similar words. 

( 2 ) No genitives but tanti, quanti, pluris, and minoris are used 
with verbs of buying and selling— 

Quanti constitit ? What did it cost ? 

Asse et pluris. An as and more. 

But— 

Magno constitit. It cost much. 

218a. (i) The charge is (less commonly) expressed by the ablative, 
with or without a preposition— 

Te hoc crimine non arguo. I do not charge you with 
this crime. 

De vi reus. Accused of violence. 

( 2 ) With the genitive and ablative of charge compare those of value 
and price. 

219a. ( 1 ) No participle need be expressed, but a phrase in ablative 
absolute must contain a verbal notion — 

Consule Planco. When Plancus was consul. 

Me puero. When I was a boy. 

Hoc populo. While the people is stick. 

Sereno. When it is fine. 

Austro. While the south wind blows. 

( 2 ) The ablative absolute is much used with passive perfect parti¬ 
ciples to supply the want in Latin of a perfect participle 
active— 

His dictis abut = this said, he went away. 


122 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[220-222. 


( 2 ) The ablative absolute cannot be used when the 
noun has any function of its own to fulfil in 
the sentence, thus— 

His dictis abiit. Literally —This being said , he went 
away. 

But— 

Hsec locutus abiit. Having said this, he went away. 

(Cf. rav t' elirwv.) 


OTHER CASE CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Double Accusative. 

*** A transitive verb whose direct action falls upon 
two objects, takes an accusative of each. 

220. Factitive verbs take two accusatives naming the 
same thing— 

Me consulem creant. They make me consul. 

Ilium Africanum nominant. They name him Afri- 

canus. 


221. Verbs of asking, teaching, and concealing may take 
an accusative both of the person and of the thing— 

Posce Deum veniam. Beg pardon of God. 

Musicam docuit pueros. He taught boys music. 

Nihil me celat. He hides nothing from me. 


ACCUSATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVES. 

Cognate Accusative. 

222. A verb taking no direct object may have an 
accusative of kindred meaning, or cognate accusative— 


Hunc cursum cucurri. / have run this race. 
Eadem peccat. He makes the same mistake. 
Dulce ridens. Laughing sweetly. 


220 a-222a.] 


OTHER CASE CONSTRUCTIONS. 


123 


220a. ( 1 ) Factitive verbs are copulative in the passive— 

Ego consul creor. / am made consul. 

Ille nominatus est Africanus. He was named Africanus. 

( 2 ) Factitives do not take two objects : the second accusative is pre¬ 
dicative. 

221a. ( 1 ) Verbs admit of this construction, which may take either 
accusative alone— 

Docuit pueros. He taught boys. 

Docuit musicam. He taught music. 

Docuit pueros musicam. He taught boys music. 

( 2 ) When both accusatives occur, that of the person represents the 

direct object, and becomes the subject of the passive. The 
accusative of the thing is in fact an adverbial adjunct, denot¬ 
ing the scope or term of action, and is therefore retained in 
the passive— 

Docentur pueri musicam. Boys are taught music. 

Hoc non celor. I am not in the dark as to this. 

( 3 ) Either person or thing may be constructed with a preposition— 

Hsec abs te poposci. I asked this of you. 

De his rebus Coesarem certiorem facit. He informs 
Ccesar of this. 

( 4 ) Prepositions (especially trans) in composition with verbs some¬ 

times retain their own force, and are followed by an accusa¬ 
tive over and above that of the verb— 

Copias Rhenum transduxit. He led his forces across the 
Rhine. 

N.B. —The preposition is often repeated— 

Exercitum trans flumen trajecit. He passed his 
army across the river. 

222a. — ( 1 ) Compare “I struck a blow," “I have fought the good 
fight." 

( 2 ) Transitive verbs used absolutely, or without an object, may take 

this accusative— 

Dulce loquens. Speaking sweetly. 

( 3 ) A noun in the cognate accusative is generally qualified by an 

adjective— 

Mirum somniavi somnium. I have dreamt a wonderful 
dream. 

( 4 ) The cognate accusative explains such constructions as— 

Vox hominem sonat. The voice sounds human. 

Cyclopa saltare. To dance a hornpipe. 


124 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[223-226. 


ACCUSATIVE OF CLOSER DEFINITION. 

223. An accusative of closer definition is used after 
passive verbs and adjectives, chiefly by the poets— 

Capita velamur. l-Ve have veils on our heads. 

Nube humeros amictus. With his shoulders clad in 
cloud. 

Os deo similis. Like a god in countenance. 

Cetera fulvus. Tawny in its other parts. 


GENITIVE OR ACCUSATIVE. 

224. The object remembered or forgotten is with verbs 
in the genitive or accusative, with adjectives in the 
genitive— 

Ciceronem memini. I recollect Cicero. 

Contumelise obliviscitur. He forgets the affront. 

Memor beneficiorum, fraudis ignarus. Mindful of 
favours , tinconscious of guile. 


GENITIVE. 

225. —( 1 ) The object felt for is in the genitive— 

Miserere nostri. Pity us. 

(2) Impersonal verbs of feeling take an accusative of 
the person feeling, and genitive of the object 
felt for— 

Miseret me tui. I pity you. 

Paenitet eum peecati. He repents of his sin. 

226. ( 1 ) Refert and interest take a possessive genitive— 

Refert patris. It concerns my father's weal. 

Interest omnium. It is the interest of all. 

(2) With refert and interest, instead of the genitive 
of pronouns, the possessive forms mea, tua, sua, 
nostra, and vestra are used. 


223a-226a.] GENITIVE. 125 

223a. Accusatives of definition are such as the following— 

Non omnia possumus. We cannot do everything. 
Maximam partem lacte vivunt. They live mostly on 
milk. 

Aliquid id genus. Something of that sort. 


224a. ( 1 ) The verbs taking gen. or acc. are memini, reminiscor, and 
obliviscor. Recordor takes the acc., rarely the gen. 

( 2 ) The acc. refers to actual remembrance , the gen. to a state of 

mind (being mindful). 

N.B. —Compare verbs of the feelings. 

Compare also Shakespeare’s “Your majesties is re¬ 
membered of it”; and, “If you bethink yourself 
of any crime. ” 

( 3 ) By this rule are explained such constructions as— 

Venit mihi Platonis in mentem. I think of Plato. 

Me sui consilii certiorem fecit. He informed me of his 
plan. 


225a. The impersonals taking acc. and gen. are miseret, psenitet, 
pudet, tsedet, and piget. 


226a. ( 1 ) Distinguish the impersonal refert from rgfert ( 3 d sing, of 

rSfero). 

( 2 ) The possessives may be considered to be fem. ablatives quali¬ 

fying re (abl. of res), contained in refert and implied in 
interest, thus — 

Mea refert = fert re mea. It has a bearing in my 
business. 

Nostra interest = interest (re) nostra. It is important 
in our business. 

( 3 ) When a pronoun is qualified by an adjective, the gen. construc¬ 

tion must be used — 

Nostrum omnium refert. It concerns all of us. 


126 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[227-229. 


DATIVE.—INDIRECT OBJECT. 

The dative is the case of the indirect object. 

The indirect object denotes the term to which 
something has reference. 

There are two classes of such datives — 

I. The dative of the thing concerned, or in 

regard of which a statement is true. 

II. The dative of the result which something 
tends to effect. 

I. Dative of the Thing Concerned. 

227. Words implying advantage or disadvantage take a 
dative of the thing affected— 

Est mihi liber. I have a book. 

Tibi arantur agri. Fields are tilled for your benefit. 

Agros dat plebi. He gives the people land. 

Narras fabulam surdo. You tell a story to a deaf man. 
Agno crus fregit. He broke the lamb's leg. 

228. ( 1 ) A dative limits the reference of another word 
to a particular object— 

Illis clarus. Illustrious in their eyes. 

Mihi deus erit. For me he will be a god. 

Congruenter naturae. Agreeably to nature. 

Mihi esurio non tibi. My hunger affects not you , but me. 

(2) The ethical dative of a pronoun thrown into a 
sentence indicates the person interested— 

Quid mihi Celsus agit. What is Celsus doing, I pray? 

At tibi venit ad me. But, if you please, he came to me. 
Hei mihi. Ah! dear me. 

229. The dative with gerunds, gerundives, and verbals 
in -bilis, denotes the person upon whom a duty or obli¬ 
gation falls— 

Moriendum est omnibus. All must die. 

Haec sunt gerenda mihi. I must do this. 

Vir mihi flebilis. A man to be mourned by me. 


22 Ja-22Qa. ] 


DATIVE. 


127 


*** Dative. All cases of remote object of the thing concerned 
are included under the idea of advantage and disad¬ 
vantage, taken to include possession, likeness, and near¬ 
ness, and their contraries. 

227a. (1) Many verbs translated by transitives in English have in 
Latin a trajective force— 

noceo, I do harm = I injure. 
parco, I show mercy —I spare. 

The time meaning of such verbs must be carefully observed. 

( 2 ) Many verbs acquire by composition a meaning which makes them 

trajective. Prepositions frequently introduce such meaning ; 
also such adverbs as bene (well) and male (ill). Thus— 

sto = / stand obsto = I stand in the zvay (/ resist). 

facio = I make benefacio = / do good (I benefit ). 

( 3 ) Trajectives cannot be used personally in the passive [vid. sup. 205 ]. 

( 4 ) Sum in its compounds, except possum, acquires a trajective 

force— 

obsum = I am prejudicial desum = / am wanting. 

( 5 ) Some verbs of giving admit a double construction— 

Prsedam donat militibus. He gives the soldiers booty. 
Prasda donat milites. He presents the soldiers with 
booty. 

228a. Ethical dative. Compare Shakespeare’s “Heat me these 
irons hot.” “ He presently steps me a little higher.” 

229a. (1) The idea of duty or obligation comes from the predication, 
not from the nature of the gerund or gerundive, which by 
itself has no such force. 

( 2 ) A gerund should not be used transitively as the subject of a verb. 
The gerundive should be employed in its stead. 

yEternas poenas in morte timendum est. We have 
eternal pains to fear in death — 
is too rare a usage to imitate. The ordinary form would be— 

^Eternse pcense timendae sunt. 


128 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[230-235. 


230. With passive verbs, chiefly in compound tenses, 
the dative denotes the agent to whom an action is 
ascribed— 

Hcec sunt gesta mihi. I did this. 

231. Verbs implying likeness or unlikeness take the 
dative of the object with which comparison is made; 
adjectives the dative or genitive— 

Homero comparo Virgilium. I compare Virgil to Homer. 

Tibi similis. Like you. 

Tui similis. The like of you. 

232. Words expressing nearness take the dative of the 
term referred to— 

Urbi appropinquat. He draws near the city. 

Proximus oceano. Nearest to the ocean. 

II. Dative of Result. 

233. An effect resulting or intended is expressed by 
the dative— 

Receptui cecinit. He sounded a retreat. 

Comitia consulibus creandis. A consular election. 

Non est solvendo. He is unable to pay. 

III. Double Dative of Thing concerned and Result. 

234. With esse, and other verbs, two datives may be 
used showing upon whom and to what effect a cause 
tends to operate— 

Est mihi damno. It is a loss to me. 

Tibi laudi datur. It is assigned to your credit. 

Cui bono ? To to hose advantage? 

COMPARISON. 

* # * Quam = 

235. After a comparative adjective, if Quam be ex¬ 
pressed, the things compared agree in case— 


2300-236^.] 


DATIVE. 


129 


230a. A dative of the agent after trajectives is too rare and too awk¬ 
ward to imitate. The ablative with a preposition should be 
substituted. Thus, not— 

Hrec sunt mihi tibi praestanda, but— 'k This must I do 
Iiaec sunt a me tibi prasstanda. J for you. 


231a. The dative of likeness with adjectives is mostly confined to out¬ 
ward feature. The gen. denotes also resemblance of character. 
Compare “ like Caesar ” and “ the like of Caesar.” 


232a. Note the construction prope ad se, prope ab domo, prope oppi- 
dum, and compare with the more common propior mihi, proxi- 
mus tibi, propior mare, proximus mare, which are also used. 
Compare also Shakespeare’s “arrived our coast” (3 Hen. 
VI., v. 3 . 8). 


233a. For the dative of the result, a preposition with the accusative is 
more frequently used— 

Aptus ad solvendum. Able to pay. 

N.B. —Some verbs take accusative or dative with difference 
of meaning according to case-notion— 

Cavere { a ^ c l uem - To guard against some one. 

\ alicui. To take precautions for him. 
f aliquem. To consult him. 


Consulere 


lalicui. To consult for him. 


235a. ~\(i) In expressions of number and quality, quam is often under- 
236a. J stood with plus, minus, amplius, and longius— 

Tecum plus annum vixit. He lived with you above a year. 
Minus duo millia. Less than two thousand. 

( 2 ) Rare constructions, (a) Instead of the ablative, a preposition 

with its case is sometimes used— 

Ante alios immanior. More monstrous than the rest. 

(P) Alius = other than, sometimes takes the ablative— 

Alius sapiente. Other than wise. 

(3) Note that the ablative can be used only for the thing on which 

the comparison falls. 

Thus, in “You have a bigger horse than I,” comparison falls 
not on me, but on my horse. 

Therefore in Latin— 

Est tibi equus major quam mihi or equus meo major: 
me major would mean that the horse was bigger 
than I. 

I 


130 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[236-238. 


Ciceronem doctiorem judico quam Demosthenem. / 

consider Cicero vi07'e learned than Demosthenes. 
Hibernia minor est quam Britannia. Ireland is smaller 
than Britain. 

Agris quam urbi terribilior. More dreadful to the country 
than the town. 


236. When quam is omitted comparatives take the 
ablative— 

Vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum. Silver is 
worth less than gold , gold than virtue. 

237. Quam may be omitted only when the things com¬ 
pared are in the nominative or accusative. 


238. SYNOPSIS OF CASE USES. 

Nominative— 

Subject —Redit Csesar. 

Predicate— Redit Caesar victor. 

Accusative— 

Direct Object —Vicit Gallos. 

Predicate of Object— Fecit Gallos subditos. 

Second Object —Docuit pueros grammaticam. 

Term of Motion— Rediit Romani. Abiit pugnatum. 

Extent (of Space)—Tres pedes alta. Os deo similis. 

,, (of Time) —Vixit multos annos. 

Cognate—Cursum cucurri. 

Dative— 

Thing concerned —Est mihi liber. Datur mihi. Narratur 
mihi. Mihi similis. Mihi proximus. Mihi clarus. 
Moriendum est mihi. Haec mihi gesta sunt. Quid 
mihi Celsus agit? 

Result— Comitia consulibus creandis. Receptui cecinit. 
Thing concerned and result— Est mihi damno. Subsidio 
castris. 


.] 


IMPERSONAL VERBS. 


131 


Genitive— 

Possessive — (Attribute) Amicus est Csesaris. Amicus fit 

Csesaris. 

(. Predicate) Omnia sunt Csesaris. 

Of Definition— Primus Romanorum. Arguit furti. Dives 
opum. yEstimo magni. Miseret me tui. Peccati 
oblitus. 

Ablative— 

/Descriptive— Vir summse virtutis. \ Ager quadraginta juge- 
l Descriptive— Vir summa virtute. J rum. 

Cause, Manner, and Instrument—Metu pallet. Dimidio 
major. Calce ferit. Utitur baculo. 

Source and Separation— Ortus regibus. Patria ejectus. 

Price and Worth—Laude dignus. Docuit talento. 

Time when or within which—Hora tertia. Tribus horis. 
Comparison—Csesare minor. 

Absolute—Consule Planco. 

Locative— 

Place where— Vixit Romse. Domi mortuus. 


IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

*** Verbs may be constructed—- 

( 1 ) With no subject. 

( 2 ) With a non-personal subject. 

The former are alone truly impersonal. They are 
used only in the 3d pers. sing, of the finite 
verb and in the infinitive. 

Verbs with a non-personal subject are quasi im¬ 
personate. They may be used in the 3d pers. 
sing, or plur. 

Many verbs are used personally in one sense and 
as quasi impersonate in another. 


i 3 2 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[239-243. 


ACTIVE IMPERSONALS. 

239. The verbs of feeling, miseret , pcenitet , tcedet , piget , and 
pudet , are used impersonally— 

Miseret me tui. Ipity you. 

Psenitet eum peccati. //<? repents of his sin. 

240. Verbs expressing certain natural phenomena, the 
author whereof is not known, are used impersonally— 

Fulminat. It thunders. 

Lapidibus pluit. It rains stones. 


PASSIVE IMPERSONALS. 

241. Verbs with no direct object in the active must be 
used impersonally in the passive— 

Tibi nocetur. You are injured. 

Ventum erat ad Vestse. We had come to the temple of 
Vesta. 

242. Quasi impersonals may have any but a living 
subject— 

Illud non licet. That is not lawful. 

Ludere oportet. It is needful to play. 

Csesarem adesse constat. It is certain that Cccsar is 
at hand. 

Te citharse decent. The harp is suitable to you. 


SYNTAX OF MOODS. 

*** Distinguish a clause containing subject and predi¬ 
cate from a phrase containing none. 

PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. 

243. The principal verb in a sentence is that which 
utters the statement, question, or command to which all 
other parts are attached. 


ACTIVE IMPERSONALS. 


2390-241 a.] 


133 


239a. No author can be assigned to spontaneous emotions. Hence the 
impersonal use of these verbs. 


240a. In vivid language, especially in poetry, the phenomena are as¬ 
signed to an author, and the verbs are then used personally— 

Pluit Jupiter. Jove sends dozen the rain. 

Euri tonat domus. The eastern heavens thunder. 

(Compare “ He rains on the just and the unjust.”) 

241a. ( 1 ) The subject is contained in the verb itself— 

Ventum erat = there zvas a coming, having come. 

( 2 ) This impersonal usage occurs in the so-called future infinitive 
passive, iri being used impersonally with the supine in -urn—• 

Dico epistolam scriptum iri. I say that there is a move¬ 
ment tozvards writing a letter. 


{Notes continued on p. 139 .) 




134 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[244-249. 


244. The speaker is the person whose statement, ques¬ 
tion, or command is uttered by the principal verb, as— 

“The boy stood on the burning deck.” Speaker , the 
author of the piece. 

“ Father ! must I stay? ” Speaker, the boy. 

“The boy, O ! where was he? ” Speaker , the author. 

“ Say, father, say. ” Speaker, the boy. 

245. A direct statement, question, or command is one 
uttered by the speaker, or reported by him in the form 
in which it was uttered, as — 

He said, “ The hoy stood." 

He cried, “ Must I stay ? ” 

He cried, “Say, father, say." 

246. An oblique statement, question, or command is 
one the principal verb of which is made subordinate, as— 

lie said that the boy stood. 

He asked if he must stay. 

He begged his father to say. 


MOOD NOTIONS. 

247. The indicative asserts on the authority of the 
speaker the existence of a fact, or asks what the fact 
is— 

Ccesar vicit Gallos. Ccesar conquered the Gauls. 

Vicitne Gallos Ccesar ? Did Ccesar conquer the Gauls l 


248. The imperative conveys a direct command— 

Aut disce aut discede. Either learn or go. 

249. —( 1 ) The subjunctive exhibits an idea entertained 
or expressed— 

Utinam vicisset Gallos. Would that he had conquered 
the Gauls. 

Vicerit Gallos. Suppose him to conqtier the Gauls. 
Vicisset Gallos. He might have conquered the Gauls. 


250-252.] 


TENSE NOTIONS. 


135 


( 2 ) Or the substance of a question stated obliquely— 

Quis vicerit ambigitur. Who has conquered is un¬ 
certain . 

250. —( 1 ) The infinitive without a subject is used as a 
noun or as the complement of a verb— 

Ludere juvat. Playing is pleasant. 

Cogor abire. / am forced to go. 

( 2 ) With a subject it exhibits the substance of a fact 
stated obliquely— 

Sese subegisse Gallos. (What he said was) that he had 
co7iquered the Gauls. 

TENSE NOTIONS. 

251. When one verb depends upon another, their tenses 
must both be primary or both historic. 

The infinitive mood uses the same form in primary 
and historic constructions. 

The present (or incomplete ) denotes an action accom¬ 
panying that of the principal verb, whether that 
verb be primary or historic— 

Dico ilium abire. / say that he is departing. 

Dicebam ilium abire. I said that he was departing. 

The petfect (or complete ) denotes an action preceding 
that of the principal verb — 

Dico ilium abiisse. / say that he has departed. 

Dixi ilium abiisse. I said that he had departed. 

The future (or prospective ) denotes an action follow¬ 
ing that of the principal verb— 

Dico ilium abiturum esse. I say that he will depart. 

Dixi ilium abiturum esse. I said that he would depart. 

252. The tense of the dependent verb must show whether 
the action it expresses precedes, accompanies, or follows 
that of the principal verb. 


• 3 6 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 252 - 


EXAMPLES OF TENSE SEQUENCE, 
(i) Infinitive— 

(i) Primary Tenses. 

Audivi ilium segrotare. I have heard that he is ill . 


99 99 

segrotasse. ,, „ has been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

Audio ilium 

segrotaturum esse. ,, is going to be ill. 

segrotare. / hear that he is ill. 

99 9 9 

segrotasse. ,, has been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotaturum esse. ,, is going to be ill. 


Audiam ilium segrotare. I shall hear that he is ill. 

,, ,, segrotasse. ,, ,, has been ill. 


a >> 

Audivero ilium 

segrotaturum esse. ,, is going to be ill. 

segrotare. I shall have heard that he is ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotasse. ,, „ has been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotaturum esse. ,, is going to be ill. 


(ii) Historic Tenses. 


Audiveram ilium 

segrotare. / had heard that he was ill. 

99 9 9 

segrotasse. ,, ,, had been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

Audiebam ilium 

segrotaturum esse. ,, was going to be ill. 

segrotare. I kept hearing that he was ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotasse. ,, ,, had been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

Audivi ilium 

segrotaturum esse. ,, was going to be ill. 

segrotare. I heard that he was ill. 


segrotasse. ,, had been ill. 


,, segrotaturum esse. ,, was going to be ill. 

( 2 ) Subjunctive— 

(i) Primary Tenses. 

Rogavi num segrotet. I have asked if he is ill. 


9 9 99 

segrotarit. ,, ,, has been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

Rogo num 

segrotaturus sit. ,, is going to be ill. 

segrotet. / ask if he is ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotarit. ,, has been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

Rogabo num 

segrotaturus sit. ,, is going to be ill. 
segrotet. I shall ask if he is ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotarit. ,, ,, has been ill. 

9 9 9 9 

Rogavero num 

segrotaturus sit. ,, is going to be ill. 

segrotet. I shall have asked if he is ill. 

9 9 9 9 

segrotarit. ,, „ has been ill. 

9 99 

segrotaturus sit. ,, ,, is going to be ill. 


253-254-] SYNTAX OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. I 37 
(ii) Historic Tenses. 

Rogaveram num segrotaret. I had asked if he was ill. 

„ segrotasset. ,, ,, had been ill. 

,, ,, segrotaturus esset. ,, was going to be ill. 

Rogabam num segrotaret. I kept asking if he was ill. 

>> „ segrotasset. ,, „ had been ill. 

,, ,, segrotaturus esset. ,, was going to be ill. 

Rogavi num segrotaret. I asked if he was ill. 

,, ,, segrotasset. ,, had been ill. 

,, ,, segrotaturus esset. „ was going to be ill. 


SYNTAX OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLAUSES. 

Noun Clauses. 

253. A clause used as a noun may be—- 

An infinitive clause. 

An interrogative clause. 

A quod clause. 

Infinitive Clauses. 

254. —( 1 ) An infinitive clause contains the fact which 
is obliquely stated or asked about. 

( 2 ) A statement or question is oblique which passes 
from principal to dependent verb through no 
interrogative. 

( 3 ) The verb of such clause is infinitive, and its sub¬ 
ject accusative— 

Hsec scio scripsisse Csesarem. I know Ccesar wrote this. 
Quid dicis scripsisse Csesarem ? What do you say Ccesar 
wrote ? 

Quem dicis hsec scripsisse. Who do you say "wrote this? 
Quo pretio credis veniturum esse triticum ? At what 
price do you think wheat 7oill be sold? 


138 LATIN GRAMMAR. [255-257* 

255. An infinitive clause is the subject or object of a 
verb. 

N.B .—Verbs sentiendi et declarandi take an infinitive 
clause as object. 

The passives of such, with verbs of being and 
seeming, take one as subject— 

Sentio ita esse. I feel it is so. 

Sic esse dicitur. It is said that it is so. 

Sic esse patet. It is evident it is so. 

Interrogative Clauses. 

256. —( 1 ) An interrogative clause denotes the point on 
which an indirect statement is made or question asked. 

( 2 ) A statement or question is indirect which passes 
from principal to dependent verb through an 
interrogative. 

( 3 ) The verb of an interrogative clause is sub¬ 
junctive— 

Dico quid sentiam. I tell yon what I think. 

Rogo quid sentias. I ask what you think. 

Scisne quo pretio veniturum sit triticum ? Do you know 
at what price wheat will be sold 'l 

Utrum Caesar scripserit quaeritur. Whether Ccesar wrote 
it is a question. 

257. Note on oblique and indirect construction. 

In oblique construction a fact is presented by means of 
two verbs, saying not how it is, but how some one 
thinks or says it is. 

The thing treated of is the verbal fact contained in the 
subordinate verb, which is therefore treated as a 
noun, and put in its noun form, the infinitive. 

In indirect speech, not the fact itself, but some point 
regarding it, is spoken of. This point is indicated 
by the interrogative, on which, and not on the 
verb, the force of the statement or question falls. 
The verb consequently is not treated as a noun. 


2530-254*-] SYNTAX OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 139 


253a. Clauses introduced by ut or ne, though often appearing to be 
noun clauses, are adverbial. They represent the scope in¬ 
tended or supposed— i. e. , the purpose or consequence of an 
action. 

254a. ( 1 ) Commands are generally expressed by means of ut and ne, 
not obliquely. 

Jubeo (/ bid ) and prohibeo (/ forbid ), and a few other verbs, 
may take an infinitive clause, but they also take clauses with 
ut or ne [see 27 ja, 2 ]. 

( 2 ) An infinitive clause seldom stands for any case but the nomina¬ 

tive and accusative, but it may do so— 

Audito Darlum fugisse. The flight of Darius being 
learnt. 

( 3 ) With passives sentiendi et declarandi the personal construction is 

generally used— 

Dicitur Caesar (not Csesarem) adesse. Ccesar is said to 
be at hand. (It is said he is at hand.) 

( 4 ) With copulative infinitives the accusative subject may be 

omitted when it belongs to the only person who has been 
named. Predicate nouns and adjectives then agree with the 
word which has named that person— 

Nolo esse longus (me esse longum). I do not wish to be 
prolix. 

Antonius cupit consul fieri (se consulem fieri). Antony 
wishes to beco77ie consul. 

Licet illis esse beatis (ipsos esse beatos). They have 
the power to be happy. 

( 5 ) Inquam (say /) does not take an infinitive clause, but is thrown 

into a sentence without affecting the construction— 

Domum, inquit, redibo. I will go home , quoth he. 

( 6 ) A subjunctive of direct statef7ie7it is turned to the periphrastic 

infinitive, or a modal infinitive— 

Troja staret. Troy 77iight be standings Trojam stare 
potuisse. 

Hoc facerem. I should do this= sese hoc esse facturum. 

( 7 ) Historic Infinitive. When a speaker’s object is to depict rather 

than describe what happens, the infinitive is used like a 
finite verb without any other change in the sentence— 


! 4 ° 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[258-260. 


258. An oblique statement is a statement of a statement. 
An oblique question is a question about a statement. 
An indirect statement is a statement about a question. 
An indirect question is a question about a question. 

259. Note on questions Direct and Oblique. 

Direct and oblique questions are introduced— 

( 1 ) By interrogative adjectives or adverbs— 

Quis es ? Unde venis ? Valesne ? 

Who are you ? Whence co?ne you ? Hoiu do you do ? 

Or without an interrogative— 

Credis ? Do you believe it ? 

N.B. —When the answer yes is anticipated, nonne 
is used— 

Nonne credis? You believe, don’lyou? 

When the answer no is anticipated, num is used— 
Num credis ? You don't believe , do you ? 

When no answer is indicated, an or the enclitic 
-ne is used. 

( 2 ) Disjunctive questions (presenting two or more 

alternatives, whereof only one can be affirma¬ 
tively answered) are introduced by utrum, 
num, or -ne, and an or an non— 

Utrum credis an non ? Do you believe or not ? 

Credisne an dubitas ? Do you believe or doubt? 

260. Note on the indirect use of interrogatives. 

The same interrogatives are used in indirect speech, 
but— 

( 1 ) Num does not require a negative answer. 

( 2 ) Necne is used for an non, as— 

Utrum credas necne nihil interest. It makes no matter 
whether you believe or no. 


256a 257a.] SYNTAX OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 141 


Haec quum dixisset me omnes intueri. When he had 
said this, all looked at me. (“There was a unani¬ 
mous gaze. ”) 

Turn caelum strepere, micare flammae, viri pavescere. 

Then the heavens crashed, lightnings flashed, all were 
panic-stricke7i. (“Then crashes of thunder, flashes 
of lightning, universal panic. ”) 

Omnia in pejus ruere ac retro sublapsa referri. Things 
ever deteriorate and fall away. (“Perpetual ruin 
and relapse.”) 

N.B. —( 1 ) The infinitive represents the essence of the verbal 
action, which alone the speaker seeks to convey, omit¬ 
ting adjuncts of time, person, and number. 

N.B. — { 2 ) Akin to this is the omission of sum before pre¬ 
dicates— 

Facies totius negotii incerta fceda ac misera- 
bilis. The whole situation (was) bewildering, 
shocking, and wretched. 

N.B. —( 3 ) The historic infinitive is generally used for the im¬ 
perfect indicative. 


256a. An indirect clause usually stands as a noun in the nominative 
or accusative ; but it may stand in any case. 


257a. ( 1 ) Statement. “Haec scripsit Caesar.” 


Haec 


\ 


Oblique dicit Cicero 

1 / 

Quid 


scripsisse Caesarem. 


'scripsisse Caesarem. 


( 2 ) Question. “ Quis scripsit? 
/Constat 


Indirect 




Rogas 



Num constat 
\Rogasne 



quis scripserit. 






142 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[261-263. 


NB. —Utrum, num, -ne, and an, being interrogatives, 
always introduce noun clauses, and must be dis¬ 
tinguished from other words translated by whether 
and or, which are not interrogative, and therefore 
introduce adverb clauses. 


Quod Clauses. 

261.—( 1 ) A clause introduced by quod ( = “the fact 
that”) presents a fact as bearing on something else. 

( 2 ) A quod clause is in apposition to a noun or de¬ 
monstrative expressed or not— 

Quod venisti jucundum est; or, Hoc jucundum est, quod 
venisti. Your having come is pleasant. 

De hoc gaudeo, quod venisti. / rejoice at your having 
come. 

Quid quod patriam vendidit ? What of the fact that he 
sold his country l 


Adjective Clauses. 

262. Adjective clauses are introduced by a relative 
adjective or by a relative adverb which is equivalent to 
one— 

Vir quem vidi. The man whom I saw. 

Talis est qualis semper fuit. He is such as he ever was. 
Agri ubi habitant. The fields in '■which they dwell. 

NB .— The relative qui used demonstratively, or 
to express purpose, does not introduce an adjec¬ 
tive clause. ( 262 a.) 


Adverb Clauses. 

263. All clauses except infinitive, interrogative, quod, 
and relative clauses, are adverbial. 


26ia-262a.] SYNTAX OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 143 


261a. ( 1 ) Quod clauses introduce a thing in actual fact, or if they 
occur in oratio obliqua, as alleged fact. 

( 2 ) They may be in apposition to words in any case. 

262a. ( 1 ) A relative adverb is equivalent to the adjective when it 
stands for the adjective in an oblique case (with or without a 
preposition)— 

Agri ubi = agri in quibus. 

Tempus quum {the time when ) = tempus quo {the time 
in which). 

( 2 ) (i) The relative qui is used demonstratively when = a demon¬ 
strative + a conjunction— 

/Qui \hj s dictis tacuit 
let die J 


/Quae \q UUm dixisset tacuit 
let haec J 1 

/Quibus j dictis tacuit 

let his J 


and having said this, he 
ceased. 


N.B. —In such cases the clause is co-ordinate, not sub¬ 
ordinate. 


(ii) The relative is used of purpose when = a demonstrative + an 
adverb— 

Arma comparavi ut^iis § 1 P a ^ r ^ am defendant. / have 

procured arms wherewith to defend my native land. 
N.B. —In such cases the clause is adverbial, as qualifying the 
verb. 

(iii) The relative is also used of result. It is then = an adjective 
of quality or quantity + an adverb (talis ut, tantus ut, &c.), 
. or has for its antecedent an adjective, not a noun— 

Is est vir < . \ omnia possit. He is a man zvho 

l talis ut J r 

could do anything. 

Nulla vis tanta est ^ j- penetrare in caelum possit. 

No strength is so great that it can reach heaven. 
Indignus est ^ j- hoc impetret. He is unworthy to 
obtain this. 


N.B. —Such clauses, though grammatically adjectival, are in 
force adverbial, as they qualify the adjective (cf. 
209 a, V iii-) 


144 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[264-266. 


264. Adverb clauses are introduced by connective ad¬ 
verbs, or by words equivalent to them— 

Hsec dum geruntur urbs capta est. While this is going 
on the town is taken. 

Operam dabo ut doctus fiam. I will strive to become 
learned. 

Quum clemens esset hostibus pepercit. He spared the 

enemy as he was merciful. 

Dives ut metiretur nummos. So rich as to measure 
his money. 

Facere non possum quin scribam. I cannot but write. 
Perge ut instituisti. Go on as you have begun. 

Cave ne facias. Take care not to do it. 

N.B .— Distinguish connective adverbs from con¬ 
junctions. Conjunctions connect not things but 
words,— names with names, sentences with sen¬ 
tences, or parts of sentences with like parts. 
Connective adverbs, besides qualifying a word in 
their own clause, connect that clause with another. 
Therefore ut, quum, dum, ubi, si, quia, and the 
like, are adverbs. 

MOOD OF DEPENDENT VERBS. 

Noun Clauses. 1. Infinitive and Interrogative Clauses. 

265. All finite verbs forming part of an oblique state¬ 
ment or question, or an indirect statement or question, 
are subjunctive— 

Dicit Caius fratrem segrotare quem amet. Cains says that 
the brother he loves is sick. 

266. According as the principal verb is in a primary or 
historic tense, that of the infinitive and subjunctive is 
primary or historic— 

Dixit Caius fratrem quem amaret segrotare. (Preterite.) 

Caius said that the brother he loved was sick. 

Dixit mihi modo fratrem quem amet segrotare. (Perfect.) 
He has iust told me that the brother he loves is sick. 


264^-2680.] MOOD OF DEPENDENT VERBS. 


264a. Connective adverbs are old case forms of demonstratives or 
relatives— 

ut for quoti (ti = a locative ending), 
si for sei (Cf. Greek e). 

quum from old relative form ka +accusative termination, 
turn from old demonstrative (cf. rJ) + accusative termina¬ 
tion, &c. 


265a. “Fratrem quern amet.” The statement that he loves him is 
Caius’s. 

Cams says that his brother is sick , and that he loves him. 

“ Dicit fratrem quern amat segrotare.” The statement that he 
loves him is not Caius’s but the speaker's — 

He says that he loves his brother, which brother , as I 
know, he loves. 

In this case, therefore, the relative clause does not form part of 
the oblique statement. 


266a. ( 1 ) For the particular tenses to be used in particular cases, 
vid. sup. 252 , 253 . 

(2) The indicative, which makes a statement on its own account, 
does not depend for its tense on that of the principal verb— 

Dicit fratrem quern amabat segrotare. He says that his 
brother , whom he used to love, is sick. 


267a. In our own Parliamentary reports important speeches are 
directly given— 

Mr A. said , “ Sir, the question is a grave one.” 

268a. Less important speeches are reported obliquely— 

Mr B ., addressing the Speaker , said that the question was 
a grave one." 


K 


146 LATIN GRAMMAR. [267-269. 

Oblique Narration (Oratio obliqua). 

From the above rules follow those for language 
reported obliquely, which differs from ordinary 
oblique statement only in this, that all its parts 
are necessarily oblique. 

267. Reported language is direct if given in the same 
form in which its author uttered it— 

Haec scripsit Caesar, “Veni, vidi, vici.” Cccsar wrote 
thus —“/ cazne , I sazo, I conquered 

268. Language is oblique if placed in a dependent 
clause— 

Scripsit Caesar se venisse, vidisse, vicisse. Cccsar wrote 
that he had come , had seen , had conquered. 

*** The following rules relate to the change of direct 
speech to oblique :— 

269. (i) The 1st and 2d persons belong throughout to 

the person speaking and spoken to in the 
principal verb. 

(ii) When (as usually happens) the author of the 
language reported is neither of these, the 1 st 
and 2 d persons of direct speech are replaced in 
oblique by the 3d. 

In such cases— 

Se, ipse, and suus replace words of the 1 st person. 
Is, ille, or a noun those of the 2 d person. 

Ille or a noun those of the 3 dperson. 

dV.B .— ( 1 ) Hie and iste rarely occur in oratio 
obliqua. 

(See examples, 269 a.) 


147 


269a.] MOOD OF DEPENDENT VERBS. 

269a. ( 1 ) Example of change from direct to oblique narration— 
Direct. The Helvetii speaking to Ccesar — 

“Si pacem Romani nobiscum fecerint in earn partem 
ibimus, atque ibi erimus, ubi tu nos constitueris, 
atque esse volueris.” If the Romans shall make 
peace with ns, we will go and stay xvherever you shall 
appoint and wish ns to be. 

Caesar reporting this in his own person— 

(Haec fuit eorum oratio.) Si pacem Romani cum ipsis 
facerent, in earn partem sese ituros atque ibi futuros 
ubi ego eos constituerem atque esse vellem. 

The Helvetii reporting it to their own people — 

(Haec fuit nostra oratio.) Si pacem Romani nobiscum 
facerent, in earn partem nos ituros atque ibi futuros 
ubi ille ( or Caesar) constituent atque esse vellet. 

Caesar reporting it as an historian {talking of himself in 3 d 

person— 

(Haec fuit eorum oratio.) Si Romani pacem cum Helve- 
tiis (cum ipsis) facerent, in earn partem ituros atque ibi 
futuros Helvetios ubi eos ille [or Caesar) constitueret 
atque esse vellet (or constitnisset — volnisset, accord¬ 
ing to the sense to be conveyed). 

(2) As to the pronouns to be used, no absolute rule is possible, but 
no room must be left for ambiguity. 

N.B. —The use of ipse in such cases is twofold— 

(i) Qualifying the subject of a clause in which a reflex¬ 

ive occurs, it refers the reflexive to that subject 
instead of the principal subject— 

Natura omnes movet ut se diligant. Natxire 
prompts all to love her. 

But— 

Natura omnes movet ut se ipsi diligant = to 
love themselves. 

(ii) It stands for the principal subject when se (or 
suus) refers to the subject of a clause— 

Caesar quaesivit quid de sua virtute aut de 
ipsius diligentia desperarent. Ccesar 
asked why they distrusted either their own 
valour or his vigilance. 


148 LATIN GRAMMAR. [270-272. 

N.B. —(2) Hie and iste are the demonstratives of 
the 1 st and 2d persons, and as these persons oc¬ 
cur rarely in oratio obliqua, their demonstratives 
occur rarely. 

Questions in Oratio obliqua. 

270. Questions asked in the 2d person are, in general, 
obliquely expressed by the subjunctive; those of the 1st 
and 3d persons usually by the infinitive— 

Quid moramur nos? Vos quid vultis? hostes quid ex¬ 
pectant ? 

Why are we delaying? What do you want ? or the enemy 
wait for ? 

Obliquely— 

Ipsos quid morari? Illi quid vellent? hostes quid ex- 
pectare ? 

Commands in Oratio obliqua. 

271. The imperative of direct speech becomes subjunc¬ 
tive in oblique— 

Hoc facite si salvi esse vultis. Do this if you would be 
saved. 

Obliquely— 

Hoc faciant si salvi esse velint. According to tense of 
Hoc facerent si salvi esse vellent. J principal verb. 


2. Quod Clause. 

272. The verb of a quod clause is indicative, unless the 
clause occurs in oblique narration— 


De hoc gaudeo quod venisti. I rejoice at your having 
come. 

But— 

Dixit se de hoc gaudere quod venisset ille. 


27 CW.] 


MOOD OF DEPENDENT VERBS. 


149 


(3) As the principal verb introducing oratio obliqua is usually in a 

past tense, historical tenses of the subjunctive (and infinitive) 
usually occur. 

(4) Infinitives of direct speech remain infinitive in oblique— 

Censeo delendam esse Carthaginem. I think Carthage 
should be destroyed. 

Dixit Cato censere se delendam esse Carthaginem. 

(5) All other dependent verbs are subjunctive. This follows from 

the fact that they are all oblique (268 ***). 


270 a. (1) Questions asked for the purpose of getting an answer are 
turned by the subjunctive. As a rule, only questions of the 
2d person are so asked. They are therefore expressed ac¬ 
cording to the ordinary manner of indirect questions. Ques¬ 
tions of the 1st or 3d person similarly asked would be simi¬ 
larly turned. 

In general, however, 1st and 2d person questions are rhetorical, 
and are merely a vivid way of expressing an opinion. Thus— 

Why do we delay? = let us go on. 

What are they waiting for ? = there is nothing for them 
to wait for. 

(2) The infinitive of rhetorical question or exclamation occurs also 
in direct speech (oratio recta)— 

Mene incepto desistere victam? Am I forsooth to give 
up beaten ? 

Me te servare non potuisse ! To think that I could not 
save you ! 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 273 - 


150 

MOODS IN ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB CLAUSES. 

273. When two finite verbs are connected by a relative 
or by a connective adverb, if in the second an idea be ex¬ 
pressed and not a fact, that verb must be subjunctive. 

N.B. —(1) Something in fact true may be expressed 
as an idea, if the speaker does not in his statement 
vouch for it as a fact. 

N.B. —(2) All finite verbs in clauses belonging to 
oblique or indirect narration must be subjunctive, 
their statement resting on the authority of the 
person reported, not of the speaker. Even when 
a speaker reports himself, his reported statement 
is treated in this respect as if it were another’s. 

N.B. —(3) In direct speech dependent subjunctives 
fall under three heads :— 

(a) Expressing the mind of the speaker, viz.:— 

The cause to which he attributes some act. 

The consequence which he attributes to 
some act or some quality. 

(b) Expressing the mind of the subject of the 
principal verb (the pei'so?i spoken of), viz.:— 

The motive from which he acts. 

The purpose for which he acts. 

The object of his fear. 

( c ) Relative clauses describing something in¬ 
definitely— i.e., in terms so general that the 
mind of the person spoken to is left to par¬ 
ticularise and apply them, viz. :— 

Qui denoting a class or type. 

Quum denoting a rolling moment of time 
(284). 


275 ^- 277 ^.] ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB CLAUSES. I 5 I 


275 a. Consequence is expressed with ut and ut non (ut nemo, ut 
nunquam, &c.) — 

Talis erat ut ei non crederetur. He was such that none 
believed him. 

276 ci. (1) Distinguish from the motive on which the agent acts a 
statement of fact made by the speaker or writer from which 
a conclusion follows— 

Brutus Caesarem jure occidit quoniam tyrannus erat. 
Brutus slew Ccesar rightly, as he was a tyrant. 

(2) Quod (not quia) with the subjunctive is used after verbs of 
praise, blame, complaint, surprise , &c., signifying the ground 
alleged. 

N.B. — Quod sometimes takes subjunctive of a verb sentiendi 
or declarandi, when the subjunctive force falls not on 
this verb but on the infinitive which follows— 

In castra rediit quod se oblitum nescio quid 
diceret. He returned to the camp because, as 
he alleged , he had forgotten something. 

277 a. (1) Purpose is expressed with ut and ne — 

Cura ut valeas. Take care of your health. 

Cave ne feceris. Take care not to do it. 

(i) Ut or ne is frequently omitted— 

Cura valeas. Cave feceris. 

(ii) For et tie, neu is used. 

(2) Verbs signifying to ask, command, advise, and strive ( monendi 
et imperandi) take a purpose clause with ut or ne in place of 
English infinitive— 

Imperat ut eant. He orders them to go. 

Monet ne faciant. He warns them not to do it. 

N.B. —(i) These verbs, as a rule, do not take an accusative 
of the person ordered with the infinitive, but they may 
take an accusative of the thing with a passive infinitive— 
Frumentum comparari imperat. He orders corn 
to be got ready. 

(ii) Conor, to strive, is a modal verb taking infinitive com¬ 
plement— 

Conor abire. / strive to go away. 

(iii) Several verbs are used as verbs of commanding, &c., 


152 LATIN GRAMMAR. [274-280. 

274. Cause is expressed by the subjunctive with an 
adverb— 

Quum clemens esset hostibus pepercit. He spared the 
enemy , as he was merciful. 

275. Consequence is expressed by the subjunctive with 
the relative or an adverb— 

Sequitur ut falsum sit. It follows that it is false. 

Fabula digna quae legatur. A story worthy of being 
read. 

276. Motive is expressed by the subjunctive with an 
adverb— 

Brutus Caesarem occidit quod tyranum esset. Brutus 
slew Ccesar as being a tyrant. 

277. Purpose is expressed by the subjunctive with the 
relative or an adverb— 

Misit legatos pacem peterent. He sent envoys to 

ask for peace. 

278. The object of fear is expressed by the subjunctive 
affirmatively with ne^ negatively with tit — 

Vereor ne veniat. / fear he will come. 

Vereor ut veniat. Ifear he will not come. 

279. The relative takes the subjunctive when it de¬ 
scribes a class or type without applying the description to 
any object in particular— 

Sunt qui putent. There are those who think. 

Nemo est qui non cupiat. There is none but desires. 


Protasis and Apodosis. 

280. When a subordinate proposition must be first 
thought of, it is called the Protasis, and the principal 
clause the Apodosis. 


282a.] ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB CLAUSES. I 53 

with an ut clause, or as verbs declarandi with infini¬ 
tive clause— 

Moneo ut adsis. / warn you to be present . 

Moneo adesse hostes. I warn you that the enemy 
is at hand. 

(3) Ut has various uses, to be carefully distinguished— 

Purpose = in order that {subj .) 

Consequence = that, or so that {subj .) 

Comparison — as [indie, of facts, subj. for mere supposi¬ 
tion ; see 282). 

Concession = although {subj.; see 285). 

(4) Quin and quominus are used of purpose or result— 

Quin = qui (old abl.) + ne = by which not, that not. 

Quo minus = by which the less. 

Quin regards only the end, quominus the means as well— 

Vix fieri potest quin veniat. His coming can scarcely be 
hindered. 

Hoc obstat quominus veniat. This hinders his coming. 

(i) Quominus therefore requires an antecedent expressed 
or implied. 

(ii) The same verb may often be used with either. 

(iii) Quominus usually, quin always, follows a negative or 
quasi negative (vix, scarcely ; ddgre, with difficulty, &c.) 

282 a. (1) The protasis '= the if clause, or conditioning clause. 

The apodosis = the then, or conditioned, clause. 

(2) Conditions are introduced by si {if), nisi {unless), si non {if not), 

quod si {and if), sin ( but if), si minus {if otherwise ), sive or 
seu {whether). 

(3) A conditioning clause may be introduced by qui = si quis {if 

any one )— 

Qui hoc fecerit clarus erit. He who does this shall be 
fatuous. 

Qui hoc faciat clarus sit. Let him who does this be famous. 

(4) A disjunctive condition is introduced by sive—sive (seu— 

seu)— 

Sive medicum adliibuerit, sive non adhibuerit, morietur. 
He will die whether he calls in a doctor or not. 


154 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[281-284. 


Conditional Construction. 

281. In a conditional sentence the protasis states a 
condition, the apodosis its consequence. 

282. If the verb of the apodosis be indicative or im¬ 
perative, stating a fact or a command, that of the pro¬ 
tasis is indicative. If the verb of the apodosis be sub¬ 
junctive, so will be that of the protasis— 

Si hoc dicis mentiris. If {as you do) you say this, you lie. 
Si veneris me videbis. If you come you will see me. 

Si vis abire abi. If you wish to go, begone! 

Si hoc dicerem insanirem. If I said so I should be mad. 
Tu nisi adfuisses de me actum esset. Had not you been 
present, it would have been all up with me. 

NB. —The subjunctive, used with optative or im¬ 
perative force, sometimes stands in apodosis with 
indicative protasis— 

Ne vivam si scio. May I die if I know. 

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 

283. Comparative clauses take an indicative of fact or 
subjunctive of idea— 

Perinde ac meritus est poenas dedit. He zuas punished 
as he deserved. 

Perinde ac si meritus esset poenas dedit. He was pun¬ 
ished as though he had deserved it. 


TIME CLAUSES (Temporal Clauses). 

Quum temporale. 

284. Quum temporale takes indicative for the exact 
moment, subjunctive for a rolling moment unspecified in 
a longer term— 

Quum quiescunt probant. When they hold their peace 
then they show their approval. 

Quum esset in Gallia bella gessit. When in Gaul he 

waged war. 


283a.] COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 155 

(5) Neither si nor any of its compounds is ever interrogative (as 

si in French, and {/"or whether in English, often are). 

The clauses introduced by them are therefore adverbial, never 
noun clauses — 

Whether he does it or not he shall die. Sive fecerit sive 
non morietur. 

But— 

Whether he has done it or no I cannot say. Utrum fecerit 
necne dicere nequeo. 

So— 

If you should say so you would lie. Si hoc dicas men- 
tiaris. 

But— 

I ask if you say so. Num hoc dicas quoero. 

283 a. (1) Indicative construction. 

The force of the English tense is to be observed, being often 
future when seemingly present — 

If you are diligent you will become learned. Gnavus si 
fueris doctus fies. 

(2) Subjunctive construction. 

Subjunctive tenses are thus used— 

Present and perfect for an improbable supposition rhetori¬ 
cally treated as possible. 

Imperfect for what might be but is considered as impossible. 
Pluperfect for that the possibility of which is past and gone. 

Si dicam mentiar. Should I say so, I should tell a lie. 

Si dicerem mentirer. Were I to say so, I should be mad. 
Si advenissem ille salvus esset. Had I come up he would 
now be safe. 

Si advenissem ille salvus fuisset. Had I come up he 
zvould have been saved. 

N.B. —In oblique speech the pluperf. subjunctive is also used 
to replace the future perfect of direct speech, after a 
past tense— 

Rex prsemium proposuit si quis hostem occidisset. 
The king promised a reward to any one who 
should kill an enemy. 

After a primary tense the perfect subjunctive would be 
used— 

Rex praemium proponit si quis hostem occiderit. 


156 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[285-286. 


N.B .— ( 1 ) Quum (when) with present and future 
verbs commonly denotes fixed time, with past 
verbs commonly time not fixed. 

Hence with primary tenses it usually takes the 
indicative, with historic tenses usually the 
subjunctive. 

But the reverse usage follows if the sense be 
reversed. 

Difficile est tacere quum doleas. It is hard to keep silence 
when in sorrow. 

Gladios videbant Decii quum in hostes irruebant. The 
Decii had swords before their eyes as they rushed on 
the enemy. 

N.B. —(2) Quum = since (of time) takes indicative— 

Anni centum sunt quum fuit Dictator. It is a century 
since there was a Dictator. 

N.B. —(3) Quum causale (= since, as, because ) always 
takes subjunctive according to the general rule of 
causal clauses (274). 

Other Connectives of Time. 

285. Connective adverbs of time, except quum, take 
the indicative, unless some other idea than that of time 
be introduced— 

Dum vagantur opprimuntur. While straying they are 
overwhelmed. 

Quamdiu erit hsec urbs. As long as this city lasts. 

But— 

Multa passus est dum conderet urbem. He slippered 
much while striving to found the city. 


CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 

286. What is allowed as a fact is expressed by the in¬ 
dicative ; what is granted for the sake of argument, by 
the subjunctive. Hence— 


2850-287^.] TIME CLAUSES. 1 57 

N.B. —Such sentences are “ virtually oblique,” the apodosis 
(infinitive clause) being suppressed— 

Rex promisit se daturum esse prsemium si quis 
hostem occidisset (= illi qui). 

(3) The indicative of modal verbs and periphrastic tenses frequently 

has a subjunctive force, and is treated as a subjunctive— 

Bonus vates esse poteras si voluisses. You might have 
been a good poet if you had chosen. 

Si veniant hostes quid facturi estis. If the ertemy come 
what are you thinking of doing 1 

(4) The indicative is occasionally used in apodosis with subjunctive 

protasis to denote inevitable result— 

Perieram nisi tu accurrisses. I had perished if you had 
not come up. 

N.B.—Tlporaais — a setting before. 

’ATrbdocris — a giving back. 

285a. (1) “When in Gaul he waged war;” “In summer I play 
cricket,”—does not mean that war or cricket occupy the whole 
time, day and night. The occasions meant fall somewhere 
within the limits indicated. 

(2) Quum — turn ( = both — and) are used to compare two statements. 
Quum in this connection takes the indicative if the statements 

are independent (co-ordinate); the subjunctive if the first 
leads to the second (and so is subordinate) — 

Quum te semper amavi turn te fidum cognovi. Not only 
have I ever loved you, but also known you to be true. 
Quum te semper amaverim turn hodie plus amo. Hav¬ 
ing ahvays loved you, I now do so more than ever. 

(3) Quum = although, takes subjunctive— 

Flumen quum aquas vehat ingentes non tamen navium 
patiens est. Though the river has an immense 
volume it is not navigable. 

286a. The ideas beyond that of time which may be attached to these 
adverbs are generally those of expectation, purpose , or watch¬ 
ing. 

287a. (i) On am vis — qna,m vis — a.r much as you wish, however much, 
strictly qualifies adjectives. Hence the subjunctive, as relat¬ 
ing to a conception or idea. 

Quamvis is often attached to an adjective without a verb— 

Quamvis audax. However bold. 



Fact. 


■58 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


' [287-288. 


(1) Etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, may be joined with either 

fnood, like other compounds of si— 

Etsi hiems erat Romani pervenit. Though it was winter 
he reached Rome. 

Ego etsi abessem me tamen non clamnassent. Though I 
had been absent they would not have condemned me. 

(2) Quanquam usually takes the indicative— 

Quanquam aberam me damnabant. Though I was absent 
they were condemning me. 

(3) Quamvis usually the subjunctive— 

Quamvis sit magnum periculum superabis. 
great the danger, you will escape it. 

(4) Licet always the subjunctive— 

Licet impendeant pericula subibo. Though 
threaten / will face them. 


However 


dangers 


He is both a good man 


THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

Co-ordinate Clauses and Words. 

287. Conjunctions couple like cases and moods— 

Et vir bonus est et miles fortis 

and a brave soldier. 

Et est, et fuit, et erit. It is, it was, it will be. 

Legendo vel scribendo doctus fias. You may become 
learned either by reading or by writing. 

Scio carum fuisse sed infestum esse factum. I know 
that he was dear but has become hateful. 


288. 


SYNOPSIS OF MOOD CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Direct. 


Stated or 

' venit 
venitne ? 


asked 

dicunt 


„ 1 

Attached | 

^ rogavit 

C..qui vicit Gallos 
...ut jam fecerat 


to state -< 

...nam tyrannus erat 


ment | 

si veneris... 



^quum quiescunt... 

i 


p- 

o 

p 

a- 

< 

<0 


[Synopsis continued on p. 160. 






287^-2880.] THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 


159 


(2) Licet is originally an impersonal verb = zV is granted. 

Licebit, the future, is occasionally used adverbially— 

Sis pecore dives licebit. Though you be rich in flocks 
(Hor. Epod. xv. 19). 

287 b. Note on Relative clauses. 

From the above rules for dependent constructions follow these 
for relative clauses (in oratio recta)— 

(1) A relative clause which alleges a reason for what is 
said is subjunctive. (Purpose, result, mere supposi¬ 
tion, 262a (2), ii, iii; 283a. 

(2) When it describes a noun and does not affect the 
verbal statement it is indicative (unless—which 
seldom happens—a wish be expressed). 

N.B. —In which last case a principal verb is subjunc¬ 
tive, 249 (1). 


288 a. (1) Conjunctions (264 N.B.) are— 

(1 a ) Copulative, et, atque, ac, -que = and. 

{,b ) Adversative, sed, verum, autem, &c. = but. 

(c) Disjunctive, aut, vel, or -ve = or. 

[d] Negative, neque (or nec) = and not . 


(2) Particularly distinguish— 

Disjunctive conjunctions (aut and vel) which co-ordinate 
clauses. 

Disjunctive adverbs (sive or seu) which introduce adverb 
clauses. 


Disjunctive interrogates ^ U ^ Um j 


clauses. 


which introduce noun 


(3) Aut and vel. 

Aut implies objective difference of things. 

Vel (from volo) that it is matter of choice for the subject. 

Aut calescere possumus aut refrigerari. We may warm 
ourselves or cool ourselves. 

Calescere possumus vel apricatione vel igni. We may 

warm ourselves in the sun or at the fire. 

N.B. — Sive, compounded of si and vel, partakes of the 
nature of the latter. 


i6o 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[289. 


SYNOPSIS OF MOOD CONSTRUCTIONS — continued. 


Command. 

Uttered ...abi 


Imperative. 


cj 

<u 

r 3 


Stated or 
asked for 

fuerit sic 
velisne ? 
valeas 

Troja staret 
[Ne feceris 

\ 

j 

/ 

as speaker’s explan¬ 
ation 

...quum clemens esset 
...qui omnia possit \ 

. si dicerem 

Attached 

as.loosely conveyed) 

' sunt qui lugeant 

to state- \ 

to hearer ' 

l ...quum esset in Gallia 

ment 

as agents in this^ 

r rnisit qui dicerent 
videant ne fecerint 

\ 

action 

interfecit quod tyrannus esset 

< 

' non recusat quin eat , 


Notion. 

Without f me omnes intueri 
statement\mene desistere ? 


289. Oratio obliqua. 


g 

.5 


O 

<U 

Q 




' O f Fa c t. Gallos vici - 


Of Idea. Romam redirem- 

( ut dixi 

Of Adjunct < 

( si possem 



Cccsar in hunc viodum 
locutus est :— 

-sese vicisse Gallos. 
-Romam se esse rediturum. 

quid se agere ? 


.2 ( Seeking information. Quid vultis V 

to J ^ _ 

^ ( Expressing speaker’s mind. Quid ago ? 
v Command . . . Abite! - 


ut ante dixisset. 
si posset, 
quid vellent illi ? | 
abirent. 


O 

cr 

»—< • 

>8 


Subjunctive. Infinitive. 
















APPENDICES . 1 


301. FORM FOR ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 


*** The words are to be kept in the order in which they occur. 


SIMPLE SENTENCES. 


i. Make a horizontal line. Write above it the subject or predicate, 
the other below. Turn the ends of the line | towards the predicate. ( 

The king 
is dead 1 


I Mortuus est 
rex 


Alauda 
keta cantat 1 


I Merrily sings ( 
the lark 


2. If subject and predicate be intermixed, make a break in the line, 
and put in the break that which occurs second (always turning the ends 
of the line from the subject and towards the predicate). 

Cato Major Cato, surnamed the Elder, 

j-haec dixit- ( I-said this-1 

, In senatu occubuit ■ , In the senate-house did fall , 


Caesar 


Caesar 


3. Put a + before and after direct objects. 

Put a * before and after indirect objects. 

+ Epistolam + * mihi * scripsit | Cicero 

Cicero 1 has written * me * a +letter + 

* Tibi * nocet ( Thy folly ^ Thy folly 

tua stultitia 1 harms + thee + 1 ’ 1 does * thee * + harm -f 


1 The short Prosody (infra, p. 182) is transcribed from ‘ Excerpta 
Elegiaca ex Ovidio,’ edited by R. P. Georgius Kingdon, S.J. The author’s 
indebtedness elsewhere to such writers as Roby, Kennedy, Madvig, Pap- 
illon, and Mason, may be taken for granted. 

L 























1 62 LATIN GRAMMAR. [301. 


4. Put in round brackets ( ) all enlargements qualifying nouns; in 
square brackets [ ] all qualifying verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

A (furious) storm (of wind and rain) 

!-doth come-j 

I [In fury] comes [with wind and rain] . 

-the storm- 

[With (many a weary) step 
and 

(many a) groan] + a (huge) (round) stone + 

. [up (a high) hill] heaved , 

!-he-! 


[Inde] 

[toro 


(pater) yEneas 


[Then] 

[from (his) (lofty) couch] 


did 


ab (alto)] 

[sic] orsus 


[thus] begin 
(father) yEneas- 


5. To mark the predicate of an object, after a factitive verb, use 
both a round bracket and a + 

[ +Caesarem+ + (consulem) + creat | The people 

populus 1 makes + Caesar + + (consul) + 1 

6. When in Latin the subject is not separately expressed, the person- 
suffix of the verb should be indicated as the subject. 

+ Epistolas + scripsi- + (doctas) + ^ pj e 

-- 1 wrote + (learned) letters + 1 

, Conturbaba- -ur. ^ They 

1 --nt-- 1 were-in-a-state-of-confusion 1 

N.B. —Vocatives and interjections do not enter into analysis, and 
are not to be included. 

[Quo] + me + Bacche / 

1_ ra pi~ 1 

-s 

■ [Whither] art leading + me, + , Bacchus ? 
-thou-' 
























301.] FORM FOR ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 163 


COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

7. Treat clauses in a complex sentence like words or phrases in a 
simple sentence, as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. When a clause is 
subject of a sentence, or in apposition to the subject, put before and 
after it a pointing towards the predicate. 

Similarly put a + before and after a clause which is either direct 
object or in apposition to it. 


. Caesarem 
Y 1 adesse 1 
constat 


I 


it 1 


1_ 

^ that 


is certain 

Caesar 

1 is at hand 1 


f 


Caesar em 
' 1 adesse 1 ' 

1 cern- j 

-o 


perceive ~h that + 


Caesar 


is-at-hand 1 


+ 


Vir 


( 


qui 


litur 1 ) 


+ pauca + loquitur 
sapit-1 


He 


1-is a (wise) man- 


/ who \ 

V 1 speaks [little] 1 / 


[ 1 j profectus est 

____j 

exercitus 

F 1 TWhen] had arrived .0 . , 

Li_r'psnr__ 1 setforth 

--the army- 


[ 


[Si] [ita] dici- 


-s 


] 


erra- 


-s 


[ 


[If] say [so] 


you 


] 


are wrong 


you 


See 78. 


































164 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[301. 


Sequitur 


(tertia) vituperatio (senectutis) 

A 

quod 


earn 


1 carere 

dicu- [voluptatibus] 

--nt-— 


+ 


There 1 


follows 


the third charge against old age, 


namely the fact that 


they 


f 


say + . . 


it 


1 is barren of pleasures 


+ 


[(Quo) pretio] 

credi- 


veniturum esse 


, 1 _j_ 

tnticum ? 


--s- 


[At (what?) price] 


. wheat . 

d0 think + < will be sold 1 + 


you 


1 1 [(quo?) pretio] veniturum sit | 

Sci- -ne+ - ^- 7; - + 


tnticum 


-s-- 


Dost 


1 I [at (what ?) pidce] 
know ~T I 


will be sold 


wheat 


+ 


thou 


N. B. — (a) Connective adverbs are analysed as simple adverbs. 

(b) “ That," in English, preceding a noun clause (which may 
always be omitted), is taken as a demonstrative, with 
which the clause is in apposition. 

(<:) Quod ( = the fact that) introducing a noun clause is to be 
treated as a conjunction, and not separately marked. 

( d ) Conjunctions and other words not considered in the 
Analysis are underlined (or printed in italics ). 

(<?) Words understood must be supplied. 


1 See 78. 


































301.] FORM FOR ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1 65 


COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

8 . Conjunctions do not enter into analysis. 

When complete clauses are joined by conjunctions, they are 
analysed precisely as simple sentences. 

Caesar Pompeius Caesar Pompey 

1 vivit 1 a * 1 mortuus est 1 1 is alive, 1 1 is dead 1 

Should the same subject be expressed with one predicate and 
understood with others, it may be indicated thus :— 

Cicero et Caesar _ Cicero and Caesar 

1 eunt 1 et 1 colloquuntur 1 1 walk 1 and 1 talk 1 


SPECIMEN OF ANALYSIS. 

Haec in Hispania secunda aestate belli Punici gesta ; cum in Italia 
paulum intervalli cladibus Romanis sobers cunctatio Fabii 
fecisset ; quae ut Hannibalem non mediocri cura sollicitum 
habebat, tandem eum militiae magistrum delegisse Romanos cer- 
nentem, qui bellum ratione non fortuna gereret, ita contempta 
erat inter cives armatos pariter togatosque.— Livy, xxii. 23. 

These events took place in Spain in the second summer of the Punic 
war, at the time when the Roman disasters in Italy had for a 
while been stayed by the masterly inactivity of Fabius, which , as 
on the one hand it disturbed Hannibal not a little , perceiving as 
he did that the Romans had at length chosen for their commander 
one whose strategy was based on calculation , not on chance , so on 
the other hand it was held in derision by his own countrymen , 
soldiers and civilians alike. 


[See Scheme of Analysis— next page. 








___ Hgec 

[in Hispania] gesta sunt 

[secunda restate belli Punici] 


LATIN GRAMMAR 


166 


[ 3 QI - 





3 


3 

i 

o 

G 


u 1 
Sh 
<U 

13 

in 


+ 


g 

3 

a 

o 


.3 

P—1 13 

£ - 

3 c 
o .5 


m 

g 3 
§ X 5 


3 


3 


D, O 
+ * 


K 

a" 


C/) 

o 

c 

£ 

o 

P 4 


+ 

V 

in p 
in « 

' 5 o S 

OJ 

—« in 
aj »h 

^ % 


« 


Cj CD 

C >- 


.O 


a; 

<u 

fc/) 


!+ § 

G G 


£ S 

O- OJ 
L 73 

+ c 

3 


<u 

+ 


OJ 

3 

O 

d 

j-h 


<U 

+ 


+ 


d 


J-5 -—^ c^j 

o 6 -g 

_ ‘rG 3 o 

3 d 

^ g .H x 

C - ~ 

C G O 

3 0^ 

G 


£ 

<u 


ffi 

+ 


3 



erat (contempta) 

[inter cive 

(armatos [pariter] togatosque)] 


































302.] 


THE ALPHABET. 


167 


302. THE ALPHABET. 

(1) Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

(2) (a) Vowels (or voice letters ) represent the sounds produced when 

the voice is emitted without interruption—viz., a, e, i, 0, u. 

{/>) Each vowel may be sounded long (or heavy ) or short {light). 
In most cases there are several sounds intermediate be¬ 
tween the longest and shortest, thus— 



Long sound. 

Short sound. 

a 

ah! 

cab 

e 

eh! 

pen 

i 

he 

him 

0 

oh! 

hot 

u 

who ? 

full 


(c) Of the vowels, a is the fullest or heaviest , the air-passage 
being more widely opened for it than for the others. 
For e and i, the passage is contracted at the back , 

For 0 and u, at the front, of the mouth. 

The order of vowels from heavy to light is a, 0, u, e, i. 
[cl) A diphthong is the combination of two vowel-sounds in one 
syllable— 

eu few); ou (now); ai (fly); oi (boy); and in Latin 
au (frazzs). 

N.B. —(1) Two vowels combined, but pronounced as one 
simple sound, do not form a diphthong— e.g., the Latin 
musse or the English fraud. They are equal to a single 
long vowel. 

The sounds of i and y (eg. , I, why) in English are 
generally diphthongs, not true vowel-sounds. 

N.B. —(2) Vowels and diphthongs can be pronounced alone 
without the aid of other sounds— 

ah, eh, 0, i. 

(3) Consonants are letters which must be joined to vowels in order 

to be fully sounded. Hence their name (consonare = to sound 

together with). 

Consonants represent the sounds produced when the voice 
is wholly or partially interrupted. 

(4) (1) When the voice is completely checked, the consonant is 

a mute— 

p, b, t, d, k, g. 


168 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[302. 


(2) When the voice is partially but not wholly checked, the 
consonant falls under one of the following clauses— 

[a) Liquids [flowing letters) 1 , m, n, r, ) Semi-vowels, or 

[b) Sibilants [hissing letters ) ) . > continuous 

or Spirants [breathing letters) j s > z > > v » ’ J* ) consonants. 

A T .B .—h is neither a vowel nor a true consonant, being a mere 
breathing— 

c, hard (card) is a mute = k ; soft (city) a sibilant = s; 
q is a mute = k (q is always followed by u). 


(5) Consonants are likewise classified according to the organ used in 
pronouncing them— 

[a) Labials [lip letters), p, b, f, v, m. 

/rx/Linguals [tongue letters)^ 

^ ^ ( Dentals [teeth letters) J ’ ()>>>>>• 

[e) Gutturals [throat letters), k, g (ng), h. 

[d) Nasals [nose letters ), m, n (ng). 

m being nasal and labial ; n nasal and lingual ; ng 
nasal and guttural. 

N.B .—th and ng, though they have no separate sign in the 
Latin and English alphabet, represent simple sounds. 
(Cf. Greek 6 .) 


( 6 ) Hard and Soft Consonants. 

(1) A consonant is hard when no voice, but only breath, is 

used in forming it— 

p, t, k, s [sun), f, th [thick), h. 

(2) A consonant is soft when some voice is used— 

b, d, g, z (s in busy), v, th ( = dh, as in the), j. 

(7) When the check of breath by which a mute is formed is partially 

relaxed, an aspirate (or spirant) is formed, thus— 
p becomes f b becomes v (labial aspirates). 

( th [thick) d , , f th (= dh, as in the) (lingual aspirates). 
” \s \z 

The Latin and English gutturals k and g are not aspirated, as in 
German and in Greek, where k becomes x • h therefore by 
itself represents the guttural aspirate. 

N.B .—Observe the change in Greek of it to <£, t to 8 , and k 
to x> when an aspirated vowel follows— 
afl vfxiov =carb v/xuiv. 
vvk8’ oXt)v = vvKTa oXr]v, 
ovx opis — ovk opas. 


ROOTS AND STEMS. 


169 


303.] 


( 8 ) Grimm’s Law— 

The Classical languages and the Teutonic languages (including 
modem English and German) belong to the same family 
(the Aryan), and many words of common origin (cognate 
words) occur in all three. 

The following law is observed, as to mutes and their correspond¬ 
ing aspirates, in the various languages respectively—- 

(1) Labials remain labials in all; linguals, linguals; and 

gutturals, gutturals. 

(2) Classical. English. German. 

aspirate — soft = hard, 

soft — hard = aspirate, 

hard — aspirate = soft. 

The change ocurring in the order A S H— 


Classical. 

English. 

German. 

drip 

deer 

thier (t hard) 

duo 

two 

zvvei 

tres 

three 

drei 

pater 

father 

vater 

TToS(ds) 

foot 

fusz 

hospes 

guest 



N.B .—All the changes as between Latin and English are 
illustrated in— 

Duo fratres = two brothers . 

(9) Other letter-changes— 

The position of the tongue being much the same in the pronuncia¬ 
tion of 1, r, and d, these letters are easily interchanged— 
, 05 t'cr<revs= Ulysses. daKpv =lacryma. 
medidies =meridies. cseluleus — caeruleus (303, 4 (ii), (e). 

303. ROOTS AND STEMS. 

(1) A root is the simplest and most general expression of an idea, 

and was originally always a monosyllable— 
dhc (root of dux —dues and duco). 
reg (root of rex—regs and rego). 
dom (root of domo and dominus). 

(2) Roots are of two kinds— 

(i) Verbal roots {predicative). These indicate a class of 


lyo 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[ 303 - 


objects, actions, or qualities. From them are formed all 
parts of speech except pronouns and pronominal adjec¬ 
tives— 

due in dux , leader. as in es-t, he is. 

i in i -re, to go. fac in fac-ilis , do able. 

(ii) Pronominal roots ( demonstrative ). These do not indicate 
any class of objects or actions, but merely point out the 
thing spoken of. From them are formed pronouns and 
pronominal adjectives— 

ma in me-i , of me. ta in tu-i, of thee, 

i in is, that one, he. 

(3) A stem is a root adapted to be the foundation of a word. 

A word applies the general idea which the root expresses to 
some particular sense: as a noun (rex), as a verb (rego), as an 
adjective (rectus), as an adverb (recte), &c. The words con¬ 
veying these differences of sense are distinguished by bifiex- 
ional suffixes. A stem is a root fitted to receive inflexional 
suffixes. 

(i) A root stem is a root used as a stem— 

(a) Without change — 

diic, diic-s (dux), diic-is, &c. 

(b) With merely internal change (strengthening of 

its vowel)— 

diic, diic-o. rSg, reg-s (rex), reg-is. 


(ii) A primary stem is a stem formed from a root by 
external change— 


Root. 

Suffix. 

Stem. 

Word. 


ar (ajv) 

VO 

ar-vo 

ar-vu-m 

field. 

fac (facio) 

to 

fac-to 

fac-tu-s 

made. 

sta (sto) 

tu 

sta-tu 

sta-tu-s 

position. 

(iii) A secondary stem is a 

stem formed from a stem— 

Root. 1st Stem. 

Suffix. 

2d Stem. 

Word. 


vie (vici) vic-tor 

|ia 

victor-ia 

victoria 

victory. 

lie 

victor-ic 

victrix 

victress. 


(iv) A compound stem contains two or more roots, and 
one or more stems— 

Comp. stem. Word. 

Root + stem) fu-era fu-era-m I had been. 

(Prim, stem + root stem) luci-fer lucifer light-bearing. 

*** Theme and base are other names for stem. 


ROOTS AND STEMS. 


]- 


171 


(4) In development of stems from roots, and of words from stems, 
various changes of letters occur— 

(i) Vowels— 

(a) A thematic (or link) vowel not belonging to the 
stem is introduced to connect consonants— 

leg-i-mus homin-i-bus 


{/>) Light vowels are frequently changed to heavy ones 


in derivation — 

acuo, I sharpen. 
s§deo, I sit. 
fides, faith. 
n6co, I kill. 
miser, wretched. 
tiro, I burn. 


acer, sharp. 
sedes, seat. 
fldus. faithful. 
n6ceo, I do hurt. 
msestus, mournful. 
aurora, dawn. 


(. c ) Heavy vowels are frequently changed to light in 
composition — 

facio, / make. conficio, I thoroughly make. 
capio, I take. occhpo, I seize. 

And also in derivation — 

Sanskrit ganas; Greek yevos; Latin genus, 
generis, genitus ; dominos, dominus. 

N.B .—For the natural order of vowels from 
heavy to light, see 302 (2), (c). 


(ii) Consonants. 

(a) A consonant is partially or wholly assimilated to a 

letter preceding or following it— 

vellem for vel-sem. terra for tersa. 
actus for agtus. scriptus for scribtus. 

impono for inpono. concresco for comcresco. 

(b) s often passes into r, especially between two vowels— 

eram for esam. generis for genesis, 

arbor for arbos. 

(c) d often becomes 1 or r (302 (9)), 1 sometimes be¬ 

comes r— 

meridies, medidies. cseruleus, cseluleus. 


172 LATIN GRAMMAR. [303. 

(, d) m, n, and s final being lightly sounded, were fre¬ 
quently dropped, e.g .— 

Elision of m in verse. (Comp, yes ’m , for yes , 

madam). 

sermo for sermon. 

domini (gen. sing, and nom. plur.) for dominis 
(originally dominois). 

(iii) Interchange of vowels and consonants— 

(a) The vowel i is sometimes interchanged with the 
consonant j, and the vowel u with the consonant 
v. Vowel and consonant in these cases are akin — 
ejus for eius (cf. ipsius ). 
amavi for amaui (cf. docui ). 
volutus for volvtus. 

(Cf. volvi and volui, both in use as perfects of 

voh'o .) 

(iv) Diphthongs— 

Excepting au, and rarely eu and ei, diphthongs in 
Latin are changed to single long vowels— 

ai generally to se (as in pilse), sometimes into e 
or i. 

N.B. —se being pronounced as one vowel, though 
written as a diphthong, 
ou regularly to u. 

( 5 ) Noun and Adjective Stems. 


(a) Stems of the 1st Declension end in a. 


3 ? 

2d ,, 

0 . 



fi (gen. plur. in ium). 

9 3 

J Cl 3 3 

1 consonants ( ,, um). 

3 3 

4th 

u. 

3 3 

5 th 

e. 

1 st Declension , pila. 



2 d ,, domino, domino s, dominus. 

^ ( civi, civis. 

tduc, dues = dux. ' 

4 th ,, fructu, fructu-s. 

5 th ,, re, re-s. 

{b) The suffixes of all declensions were at first much the same, 


ROOTS AND STEMS. 


173 


303 -J 


if not absolutely so, changes being introduced by vowel 
decay. The following were probably the signs of the 
various cases :— 

Singular. 

Nominative, s— Dominu-s, dux (= cs), fructus, res. 

Pila was probably originally pilas (cf. 
rajulas). 

Sermo, originally sermons (stem 

sermon). 

Genitive, is, i — The old genitive of the 1st Declen¬ 

sion was in ai (cf. aulai, 104a (5)). 
An older form was probably in s 
(cf. familias, 104a: (2), also juouaris). 
In the 2d Declension traces of the 
same are to be seen in unius, &c. 
Dative, i — Compare domino with \ 6 yu>. 

Also O. Eng. the birdis song— the 
bird’s song. 

Accusative, emorm —Neuter nominatives are accusatives 

used as such. 

Things without life were considered 
first as objects, afterwards as 
subjects. 

Ablative, ad or ed —Pila = pila-ed, domino = domino-ed, 

&c. 

N.B. —Vocative of 2d Declension in 6 is a decayed form of 
the stem without inflexion— 

Doming = domino. 

Plural. 

Nominative, es or i— Pilse for pilai. 

domini for domino-e (cf. \ 6 yoi), 
probably for domino-es (cf. O. 
Eng. the smalls birdis = the small 
birds). 

Genitive, rum or um —Cf. coelicolum = coelicolarum, &c. 

Dative, bus, bis,^ ^ duo bus, dua bus, filia bus, nob A. 

Ablative,) or is J 

Accusative, s preceded by a long vowel (originally ms —cf. 

amant). Thus pilas = pila-ms; dominos = 
domino-ms. See. 


174 LATIN GRAMMAR. [304. 

(6) Stems of Verbs. 

(i) 1st Conjugation stems in a —amo = ama-o, ama-s, &c. 


2d 

>> 

>> 

e —mone-o, dele-o. 

3 d 



/ u— flu-o 



lor consonants —reg-o. 

4th 

5 > 

>> 

i —audi-o. 


(ii) In the 1st, 2d, and 4th Conjugations the tense and mood 

suffixes are generally joined directly to the stem— 
ama-bam, mone-rem, audi-re. 

In the 3d Conjugation a thematic vowel is used to join 
them— 

flu-i-s, reg-e-re. 

*f But fer-re is an instance of a consonant stem joined 
directly to infinitive suffix. 

(iii) The stem is farther modified in various ways in the per¬ 

fect and supine, and the parts formed from them. 


304. LATIN NUMERATION. 

(1) The symbols for numbers in Latin are— 

I V X L C IQ or D ClQ or M. 

1 5 10 50 100 500 1000. 

(2) In the combination of these symbols except Iq observe—- 

(i) The same smybol repeated is added to its first value— 

III = 3 XXX = 30 CC =200. 

(ii) A smaller number written after a larger one is added 

to it— 

XI=II XIII =13 XVIII = 18 LXXX = 80 
CCLX = 260 MDCCCLXXXVI = 1886 

(iii) A smaller number written before a larger one is subtracted 

from it— 

IX = 9 XL = 40 XC = 90 

(3) In the combination of Iq observe— 

(i) That each Q added to the right (after the first) multiplies 
the value by 10. Thus— 

IQ = 5 °° IQQ = 5 °°° 


lQQQ = 5 °> 000 - 


ROMAN MEASURES OF TIME. 


175 


305 -] 


(ii) 1 hat these numbers are doubled by placing C the same 
number of times to the left. Thus— 

Clo = 1000 CCIQO = 10,000 ccciooo = 100,000. 

305. ROMAN MEASURES OF TIME. 

I. Dates of Years. 

(1) Years were dated from the foundation of the city (b.c. 753 ). 

More commonly a year was indicated by the names of the 
Consuls who held office during it. 

N.B .—A.U.C. = anno urbis conditae. In the year from the 
founding of the city. 

II. Divisions of the Year. 

(2) Originally the year contained but ten months, beginning with 

March. This accounts for the names September , October , 
November, December , these being the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th 
months respectively. The 5 th and 6th months were called 
Quintilis and Sextilis (July and August). 

Afterwards the months January and February were added, but 
the names of the others were retained. 

Later Quintilis was named Julius, and Sextilis, Augustus, in 
honour of Julius and Augustus Caesar. 

Originally March, May, July, and October had 31 days; all 
other months 29. 

(3) Julius Caesar (b.c. 45) reformed this calendar, which was very 

imperfect, and had produced much confusion. 

He instituted leap-years every 4th year, and also fixed the num¬ 
ber of days for each month at the figure we now use. His 
arrangement is known as the Julian Calendar. The Julian 
Calendar, being found still somewhat incorrect, was in A.D. 
1582 further reformed by Pope Gregory XIII., who arranged 
for the omission of one leap - year in each century. This 
method of division, which is now in use throughout Europe 
(except in Russia), is called the Gregorian Calendar. 

III. Divisions of the Month. 

(4) In the Latin month there are three principal days, from which 

the position of other days is reckoned. 

(i) The Calends (Calendae, f.), the 1st of the month. 


176 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


OS- 

(ii) The Nones (Nonse, f.) In March, May, July, and 

October, the 7th ; in all other months, the 5 th. 

(iii) The Ides (Idus, f.) In March, May, July, and Octo¬ 

ber, the 15 th ; in all other months, the 13 th. 

N.B. —This difference is a relic of the time when 
March, &c., had more days than the other 
months. 

(5) Other days are described by their position with regard to these. 

In so describing them, two points must be observed :— 

(i) Always count from the point ( Calends, Nones, or Ides) 

next coming, never to what is past. 

(ii) Always count in both days—that reckoned from, and 
that reckoned to. 

N.B .—On this system the number from one point to 
another is one more than we make it. Thus 
Sunday by the Roman computation is seven 
days before Saturday. Thus also the Nones 
were so named as being nine days before the 
Ides. 

(6) (i) The date of the days on which the Calends, Nones, or Ides 

fall, is expressed by the ablatives Calendis, Nonis, Idibus, 
with the name of the month (which is an adjective) in 
agreement. 

Thus Calendis Martiis, the 1st of March. Nonis Maiis, 
the 7th of May. Idibus Septembribus, the 13 th of Sep¬ 
tember. 

(ii) The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides, is ex¬ 

pressed as pridie Calendas, pridie Nonas, or 
pridie Idus. 

Thus, pridie Calendas Januarias, the 31 st of De¬ 
cember. Pridie Idus Apriles, the 12 th of April. 

(iii) The day previous to this is, by Latin reckoning, the 

3 d day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides; the 
next is the 4 th, and so on. 

The date is best expressed as ante diem tertium 
(1 quantum, quintum, &c.) Calendas (or Nonas or 
Idus), with the name of the month in agreement. 
Thus, April 3ff=ante diem tertium Nonas Apriles. 
May q ) d= ante diem quintum Nonas Maias. 


ROMAN MEASURES OF TIME. 


1 77 


305 J 


June ^>th — ante diem sextum Idus Junias. 
June 2ii-/=ante diem undecimum Calendas 
Julias. 

N.B. —(1) When counting from the Nones or Ides , 
add one to the English day of the month on 
which they occur, and subtract the date of 
the day in question. 

When counting from the Calends , add two 
to the number of days in the month before 
these Calends, and subtract the date of the 
day in question. 

N.B .— (2) The date may be briefly expressed, as 
a. d. Ill (for ante dieni tertium) Non. Apr., 
&c., or III. Non. Apr. 

/ 

(7) In leap-year the Latins add, like us, a day to February , but 

number its days, up to the 24th inclusive, as though there were 
to be but 28 days. The 24th is therefore a. d. VI. Calendas 
Martias. On the 25th they begin to allow for the 29th day, 
therefore the 25th is likewise a. d. VI. 

The day thus twice reckoned was called dies bissextus, and from 
its occurrence a leap-year was named annus bisextllis. 

N.B. —(3) The phrases ante diem, &c., are sometimes 
treated as indeclinable nouns— 

Ex ante diem III. Nonas Junias usque ad pridie 
Calendas Septembres. From June 3d to 
August 31st. 

(8) The Roman day was from sunrise to sunset, and its length con¬ 

sequently varied with the seasons. At its longest it was about 
15 hours, and at its shortest about 9. 

It was divided into 12 hours (horse), the length of which varied 
with the day. At midsummer their length was about 75 
minutes, and in midwinter about 45. 

(9) The Roman night was from sunset to sunrise, and varied inversely 

as the day. 

It was divided into four watches (vigilise) of equal length, the 
1st beginning at sunset and the 3d always at midnight. 


M 


178 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[306. 


306. ROMAN MONEY AND WEIGHTS. 

(1) The as (m.) was originally a Roman pound of copper (= about 

11^ oz. avoirdupois), worth in our money about eightpence. 
Its weight, and consequently its value, were gradually reduced, 
till finally it contained only ^ of a pound. 

In the Classical period it was worth nearly a penny. 

The as was the basis of the Roman system both of money and 
weights. 

As a weight it was also called libra ( pound) : hence the English 
symbol lb. From the uncia, or T V of the pound, we have the 
English ounce. 

Money. 

(2) The unit of computation 'was not the as but the sestertius 

{sesterce) = 2\ asses; its value being, in the Classical period, 
rather more than twopence under the Republic, and rather less 
than twopence under the Empire. 

The name sestertius = semis tertius = \.wo and a half (“the third 
a half”). 

The symbol for the sestertius was HS ( = libra, libra, semis, or 
I.I.S.) 

The sestertius was also called nummus sestertius, or simply 
nummus [coin). 

(3) In the computation of sums of money, four uses of the word are 

to be distinguished. 

{a) Sestertius, -i (= one sesterce ), regularly declined in singular 
and plural (genitive plural usually sestertium). 

Used with cardinal numeral adjectives (unus to mille 
inclusively), or the genitive plural with the noun 
mi Ilia — 

mille sestertii = 1000 sesterces, 
duo millia sestertium = 2000 sesterces. 

{b) The genitive plural, sestertium, came to be taken as a 
neuter noun, from which a plural, sestertia, was formed. 
But singular and plural were quite differently used. 

(i) The plural, sestertia, was used most commonly with 
distributive numerals to denote sums of 1000 
sestertii each (about £%, 17s. under the Republic, 
and £7, 16s. under the Empire)— 
trina sestertia = 3000 sesterces. 


ROMAN MONEY AND WEIGHTS. 


306.] 


179 


To distinguish sestertia from sestertii, a line is 
drawn over the HS— 

HS HI = 3 sesterces. HS III = 3000 sesterces. 

(ii) The singular, sestertium (declined regularly, but 
used only in nom., gen., acc., and abl.), was used 
with a numeral adverb alone to denote 100,000 
sesterces — 

duodecies sestertium ( twelve times a sester- 
tium)= 1,200,000 sesterces. 

Ad summam sestertii decies. To the 
amount of 1,000,000 sesterces, 
quadragies sestertio emit. He bought it 
for 4,000,000 sesterces. 

To distinguish sestertium thus used from sestertii 
and sestertia, a line is drawn over both the HS 
and the numeral attached— 

HS XXX = tricies sestertium = 3,000,000 ses¬ 
terces. 

IV. B. —(1) Sestertium, -i, is not used for sums of less 
than a million sesterces, therefore not with 
numeral adverbs less than decies, ten times. 

N.B. —(2) Sestertium is sometimes omitted, and the 
adverb used alone— 

decies accepi , I received 1,000,000 sesterces. 

N.B. —(3) Sestertium (nom. or acc. sing), meaning 
100,000 sesterces, must be carefully distinguished 
from sestertium (gen. plur.), meaning simply 
sesterces. The former is joined immediately to 
a numeral adverb ; the other immediately to 
millia — 

decies centena millia sestertium = a million 

sesterces. 

decies sestertium = a million sesterces. 


N.B. —(4) The sestertius was a coin (of brass or 
silver). 

sestertium and sestertia were not coins, 
but represented amounts of money. 


(4) Other Coins. 

(a) The denarius the principal silver coin in use, originally con- 



i8o 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[307-308. 


tained 10 asses. When the as fell in value, the denarius was 
made = 16 asses, but in military pay it still counted as 10 only. 

Under the Republic its value was about 8^-d.; under the 
Empire, about 7-^d. 

(1 b ) The aureus, or gold coin, contained 25 denarii. 

Its money value at Rome was therefore under £1 ; but 
the gold it contained was equal to a guinea of our 
money. 

(5) Interest, in Classical times, was reckoned by the month. The 
legal rate was I per cent per month =12 per cent per annum. 
This was known as centesimse usurse. To express lower 
rates, like other fractions, the divisions of the as were used 
thus— 

usurse uncise=i per cent per annum ( T V per cent per 
month). 

usurse besses = 8 per cent per annum (f per cent per 
month), &c. 


307. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

(1) Pes, the foot— nf English inches (divided into 12 uncise, whence 

English inch). 

(2) Passus, the J>ace=tivo steps (gradus) = 4f English feet, nearly. 
N.B. —A pace was measured from the spot where the foot was 

taken up to that where the same foot was put down again. 

(3) Mille passus, the mile ==4854 English feet. 

The Roman mile was thus shorter than ours by 426 feet. 


308. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 

Dry Pleasure. 

(1) Modius = about 2 gallons (1 peck). 

Liquid Pleasure. 

(2) Amphora = 3 modii=i Roman cubic foot = about 5f gallons 

English. 

The amphora contained 2 urnse ; the urna, 4 congii; 
the congius, 6 sextarii ; T V ( uncia ) of a sextarius = 
1 cyathus. 


ROMAN NAMES. 


181 


309-] 


309. ROMAN NAMES. 


(1) A Roman citizen had usually three names— 

The first, or prsenomen, designated the individual. 

The second, or nomen, ,, the gens or tribe. 

The third, or cognomen, ,, the family. 

Marcus Tullius Cicero = Marcus of the Cicero family of 
the Tullian gens. 

Publius Cornelius Scipio — Publius of the Scipio family of 
the Cornelian gens. 


(2) An agnomen (or surname) was added for distinguished exploits, 
or on account of some other characteristic. 

Thus Scipio, for his victories in Africa, was surnamed Africanus; 
and afterwards, when the same title w T as given to another 
Scipio, Major was added in the case of the first and Alinor in 
that of the second. The name of the elder Scipio was thus in 
full— Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major. 

Another Scipio, on account of his pointed nose, was named Pub. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica. 

N.B .— Cognomen is sometimes used of any name follow¬ 
ing the nomen, therefore including the agnomen. 


(3) An adopted son took his adoptive father’s name in full, to which 
he added as an agnomen an adjectival form of the name of his 
own gens. 

Thus the younger Scipio, who was of the -Tamilian gens, and 
adopted by Publius Scipio (son of Africanus Major), was 
named in full Publius Cornelius Scipio JEmilianus Africanus 
Minor. 

The Emperor Augustus, who was of the Octavian gens, and 
adopted by Caius Julius Caesar, was Cains Julius Ccesar 
Octavianus {Augttstus being added as another agnomen after¬ 
wards). 


(4) The prsenomen is often abbreviated 


A. =Aulus. 
Ap. = Appius. 

C. -Caius. 
Cn. =Cnseus. 

D. = Decimus. 
L. = Lucius. 


M. = Marcus. 

M ’. = Manius. 

Mam. = Mamercus. 

N. =Numercus. 

P. = Publius. 

Q. = Quintus. 


S. (Sex.) = Sextus. 

Ser. =Servius. 

Sp. =Spurius. 

T. = Titus. 

Ti. (Tib. ) = Tiberius. 


182 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


[3io- 


(5) Women were generally known by the name of their gens. 

Thus the daughter of Julius Caesar was simply Julia; of Tullius 
Cicero, Tullia ; of Cornelius Scipio, Cornelia. 

Three sisters were distinguished, e.g, as Cornelia, Cornelia 

Secunda or Minor, Cornelia Tertia. 


310. PROSODY. 

I. General Rules. 

(1) A vowel before two consonants (or a double consonant) in the 

same word is long : as possiint, axis. 

(2) This is true also when one of the two consonants is at the end 

of one word, and the other at the beginning of the next, as 
jus sit pueros. 

(3) A short vowel before a mute and a liquid is made common— i.e., 

may be used either long or short, as pdter, pdtris, or pdtris. 

N.B. —The mute and the liquid must both belong to the same 
syllable for the vowel to be used short. 

(4) A vowel before another vowel in the same word is short, as 

omnia. The exceptions are— 

(i) Genitives in Pus, as unius, where the i is common : 

in alterius, however, it is always short, and in 
alius (gen.) always long. 

(ii) Genitives and datives of the 5th Declension, like faciei, 

where the e is long when it comes between two Vs. 

(iii) The first syllable of the verb fio, which is long in all 

its moods and tenses except the infin. and imperf. 
subj. 

(iv) Some words derived from the Greek, as aer; and 

some Greek proper names, as Laertes, sEneas. 

(5) Diphthongs and contracted syllables are long, as Cccsar, cdgo for 

coago, nil for nihil. 

Except the preposition pros, which is short when it comes before 
a vowel in composition, as prdust us. 

II. Some Rules for Non-Final Syllables. 

(6) In substantives and adjectives the vowel preceding -rum of the 

gen. plur. is long, as penndrum, domino rum, facib'um. 


PROSODY. 


183 


3 IO *l 

(7) When the dative plural ends in -bus, or -bis, if the preceding 

vowel is a, e, or 0, it is long, as flidbus, fa debus nobis: if it is 
i or u, it is short, as montibus , quercubus. 

(8) The quantities of the vowels which mark the four conjugations 

of verbs have been already learnt. 

The verb do dare (to give) is an exception, for though of the first 
conjugation, it has a short throughout. 

(9) The increments of all verbs in the imperf. indicative are long, as 

legebam, legebdtis: except, of course, the penult of the second 
pers. plur. of the passive, as docebamini. 

(10) The penult of the third plur. of the perf. ind. act. is long in all 

verbs, as fuerunt, or fuere. 

Poets sometimes shorten this syllable : thus Ovid shortens it in 
vagierunt, compulcrunt, audierunt. 

(11) Dissyllable perfects have the first long, as veni, vidi, vici. 

Except bibi, dedi, sctdi, steti, tuli , and fidi from findo. 

(12) Reduplicated perfects have the first short, as fefelli; and the 

second also short, if not before two consonants, as didici, 
cecini, pepuli, tetigi. 

Except cecidi from cczdo (to cut). 

(13) Dissyllable supines have the first long, as motum, vision: so also 

have the participles that are formed from them, as visits, 
visurus. 

The exceptions are ituin, datum, lituin , ration, rutum, sdtum, 
situin, station. 

III. Rules for Final Syllables. 

(14) The general rule for vowel-endings is— 

a and e final are short; i, 0, and 11 final are long. 

There are numerous exceptions— 

(i) a final is long in the abl. sing, of the 1st Declension, 
in the imperative of the 1st Conjugation, and in all 
indeclinable words except itd and quid. 

(ii) e final is long in the abl. sing, of the 5th Declension, 
and in fame, abl. of fames -is; in the imperative 
of the 2d Conjugation ; in adverbs derived from 
adjectives in -us, as docte (except bene and male), 
and in monosyllables that are not enclitics, as me, 
te, se, ne. 


184 LATIN GRAMMAR. [311. 

(iii) i final is short in nisi\ quasi ' and common in mi hi, 

tibi, sibi, nbi, ibi. 

(iv) 0 final is short in the adverbs modo and cito ; in the 

pronoun ego; in the numerals duo, odd; and in the 
verbs scio, vescio. 

(15) Words ending in b, d, t, l, n, r, have their finals short, as sub, 

apiid, vincit, semcl, carmen, amor. 

(i) Some monosyllables are excepted, as the adverbs non, 

quin, cur, and the nouns sol, ver, fur, par. 

(ii) Also words from the Greek with long vowels, as aer, 

cether, crater. 

(16) c endings are long, as sic, hoc, hue. But nec, and donee are 

short, and the pronoun hie is common. 

(17) s endings depend for quantity on the preceding vowel, thus— 

•as, -es, and -os final are long, as pennas, nubes, dominos. The 
exceptions are these— 

(i) Some nouns from the Greek have as short in the nom. 

sing, and acc. plur., as lampds, lampadas. 

(ii) -es final is short in the nom. sing, of nouns whose in¬ 

crement is short, as miles militis, seges segetis; but 
Ceres, aides, abies, paries, and pes, have es long, 
though their increment is short. 
es from sum is short, with its compounds. 

(iii) os final is short in os ossis, and in compos, impos, which 
have a short increment. 

(18) - is an d -us final are short, as ignis, tempiis. The exceptions 

are- — 

(i) Datives and ablatives plural in -j, as dominis, nobis, 
and the second person sing, of all tenses where the 
second plur. has the penult long, as audis auditis, 
veils velitis, sis sltis. 

(ii) Nouns ending in -us which have a long increment, as 
virtiis virtutis, tellus telluris; and all cases in -us 
of the 4th Declension except the nom. and voc. sing. 


311. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 


A figure is a deviation from the proper form, pronunciation , con¬ 
struction, or signification of words. 


FIGURES OF SPEECH. 


185 


311*3 

I. Figures of Etymology. 

(.Deviations from proper form.) 

(1) Apharesis, the taking away of a letter or letters from the begin¬ 

ning of a word (a(paip€ais = a taking away)— 

’st for est. 

(2) Apocope , the taking away from the end (<xTroKonri = a. cutting off)— 

tun’ for tune ? 

(3) Syncope , the taking away from the middle {avyKoiri] = a cutting 

together)— 

sseclum for soeculum. 

(4) Metathesis , transposition of letters (/xerd0e<r/s = transposition)— 

cretus for certus. 

II. Figures of Prosody. 

(.Deviations from proper pronunciation .) 

(5) Elision , the suppression of a final syllable ending in a vowel, a 

diphthong, or the letter m, before a word beginning with a 
vowel or h (elisio = a crushing out)— 

Monstrum horrendum informs ingens. 

JV.B .—Elision is in different cases variously called synaloepha , 
synapheia, and echthlipsis. 

(6) Hiatus , the omission to elide a syllable in the same circum¬ 

stances {hiatus — a gap)— 

The interjections 0 , heu , and pro are never elided. 

Long vowels and diphthongs are sometimes retained, 
especially in the arsis of a foot— 

Stant et juniperi et castanese hirsutae. 

(7) Synceresis , two syllables contracted into one (<rvva'ipe<ris = a. draw¬ 

ing together)— 

Aurea, deinde, eaidem. 

(8) Diceresis , one syllable resolved into two (Siaipeais = a drawing 

asunder)— 

Aurai for aura?, Orpheus for Orpheus. 

(9) Diastole , a short syllable made long (Smo-roA?) = a prolongation)— 

Que for que. 

(10) Systole , a long syllable made short {o-voroXri = a contraction)— 
Tul&runt for tulerunt. 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


186 


bu¬ 


ll I. Figures of Syntax. 

, (Deviations from pi'oper construction .) 

(i i) Ellipsis, omission of a word or words (eAAet^ts^a leaving out)— 
Ad Jovis (templum). To Jove’s temple. 

Hie illius arma (fuerunt). Here were her arms. 

(12) Asyndeton is an ellipsis of a conjunction (d<rwSeToi/ = not bound 

together)— 

Veni, vidi, vici = I came, I saw, I conquered. 

(13) Brachylogy is a concise and abridged expression (f 3 paxvSoyla = 

a short way of speaking)— 

Natura hominis beluis antecedit. The nature of man 
surpasses (that of) brutes. 

(14) Zeugtna employs a word in two or more connections, though 

strictly applicable only in one (£evy/j.a=a. yoking together)— 
Pacem an bellum gerens. Whether waging war or peace. 

(15) Pleonasm is a full, redundant, or emphatic form of expression 

{y\fova.(rp. 6 s = superabundance)— 

Erant omnino itinera duo quibus itineribus exire possent. 
There were two roads by which (roads) they could set 
forth. 

N.B.—Pleonasm is altogether distinct from tautology, which is 
a useless repetition (ravroSoyia^a. saying of the same)— 
Aristophanes makes Euripides charge Aischylus with taut¬ 
ology in such expressions as— 

TfjKw Kal Ka.Tfpxoiu.cu. I arrive and come. 

Kripvcrau) KAveiv aKodacu. I bid him listen atid 
hearken. 

(16) Hendiadys, the use of two nouns instead of a noun with a 

qualifying word ( %v dia. dvo 7 v = one through two)— 

Pateris et auro. With golden bozvls. 

(17) Enallage, the substitution of one part of speech for another, 

or one form for another (eraAAayri = a.n interchange)— 

Populus late rex = populus late regnans. A people with 
extensive szoay. 

Cursus justi fluminis = cursus justus fluminis. The right 

course of the river. 

(18) Synesis, construction according to sense, without regard to 

grammatical forms (crvi'ea'is = understanding)— 

Pars capti sunt. Some zvere taken. 


3 11 -] FIGURES OF SPEECH. 187 

(19) Anacolouthon, want of harmony in construction of different parts 

of a sentence (avaK 6 \ov 6 ov = wanting sequence)— 

Ut dicunt omnes Graios esse (for Graii sunt). As they 
say, all are Greeks. 

(20) Hyperbaton, transposition of words or clauses (virep^arSv = 

transposed)— 

Nihil erat super = nihil supererat. Nothing remained. 
Valet atque vivit. He is alive and well. 

*** The transposition of clauses (as in the second example) 
is sometimes called hysteron proteron (varepov 7rpo- 
rtpov = the cart before the horse. 

IV. Figures of Rhetoric. 

(Deviations from proper signification of words.) 

(21) Metaphor, transference of a term from its proper subject to 

another ( p.(Ta(popd = 3 . transference)— 

Sitiunt segetes. The corn-fields are athirst. 

Reipublicre vulnus (for damnum). The wound of the 
state. 

N.B. — Simile, or comparison, is not a figure of speech, 
words being used in their proper sense— 

Venti velut agmine facto. The winds as if 
they had set themselves in array. 

(22) Allegory is an extended metaphor (aAATjyopia^implying one 

thing by another)— 

Talking of the state as a ship, &c. 

(23) Metonymy, use of one name for another naturally suggested by 

it (^ero^i^aa^ transference of name)— 
yEquo Marte, for prcelio. 

Neptunus, for the sea. 

(24) Synecdoche, naming the whole for a part, or vice versa (avven- 

5 oxv = understanding one thing with another)— 

Carinse (keels) = ships. 

(25) Irony, the use of a word for its contrary (elpuveia = dissimula¬ 

tion)— 

Bonus imperator vester ! 7 hat nice general ofyours ! 

The above figures of Rhetoric are sometimes called 
Tropes (Tpoiroi — turns of language). 


188 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 


bn- 


(26) Climax, a series of expressions, each stronger than the preceding 

(«Aif(.a| = a ladder)— 

Nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas. You do nothing, 
try nothing,, intend nothing. 

(27) Hyperbole, an exaggeration ( virepl 3 o\'f} = a.n overshooting)—■ 

Gemini minantur in ccelum scopuli. Twin crags tower 
threatening to the skies. 

(28) Litotes, denial of something in place of assertion of its opposite 

(Aitott)s = plainness)— 

Non nihil =■ something. 

Non indoctus = somewhat learned. 

(29) Prosopopoeia, personification of inanimate objects ( irpoacotroiroita 

= personification)— 

Necessity is the mother of invention. 

(30) Apostrophe, an address to inanimate objects or absent persons 

( aTrocrTfiocpri^a. turning away)— 

Tu Troja nunc stares. Thou, Troy, wouldst still be 

standing. 

* The following artifices—though not strictly figures— 
are to be noticed. 

(31) Alliteration, repetition of the same letter at the beginning of 

successive words [alliteration putting of letter to letter)— 

Vi victa vis est. Force was foiled by force. 

(32) Apophdsis, pretended omission [dnocpaaisna denial)— 

Non dico te pecunias accepisse ; rapinas tuas omnes 
omitto. I do not mention that you were bribed; I say 
nothing of all your acts of violence. 

( 33 ) Aposiopesis, an ellipsis which, for rhetorical effect, leaves the 

sentence unfinished [cuvo(Tiwin)ais = z. becoming silent)— 

Quos ego- Sed motos prsestat componere fluctus. 

Whom Izuill - But first let me still the raging sea. 

(34) Euphemism , use of mild or agreeable language on unpleasant 

subjects Ui)(pr)iLu<r/xos = speaking well)— 

Pontus Euxinus. The hospitable sea (for the stormy sea = 
the Black Sea). 

(35) Antithesis, contrast (avTi 6 e<Tis = a setting against)— 

Publice egestas, privatim opulentia. Public want, private 
wealth. 




312.] ABBREVIATIONS USED IN LATIN. 189 

(36) Onomatopoeia, imitation of sound described (ovofxo.TOTvoua — word¬ 

making)— 

Mugiunt boves. The cattle low (moo). 

Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum 
(of horses galloping). 

Quamvis sint sub aqua sub aqua maledicere tentant (of 
frogs croaking). 

( 37 ) Oxymoron , an apparent contradiction (o^vjuwpov = pointedly 

foolish)— 

Quum tacent clamant. When silent they cry out — i.e., 
their silence is eloquent. 

(38) Paronomasia, punning ( 7 rapot'o^a<ri / a = play upon words)— 

Jus verrinum. Verres ’ law, ox pig booth. 


312. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN LATIN. 

(1) Classical. 


A.D. (or a.d.), ante diem. 

A.U.C., anno urbis conditae. 

Cos., consul, consule. 

Coss., consules, consulibus. 

D., Divus (applied to deceased 
emperors). 

D.D., dono dedit. 

D. M., dis manibus. 

D. S., de suo. 

F., filius. 

F.C., faciendum curavit. 

HS, sestertius. 

Id., idem. 

(2) 

A.C., anno Christi. ) 

A. D., anno Domini. ) 

A.M., anno mundi. 
a.C.n., ante Christum natum. 
p.C.n., post Christum natum. 

C., caput (chapter), 
cet., cetera. 


Kal., Kalendse (Calendse). 

Non., Nome. 

O. M. , optimus maximus. 

P. C., Patres conscripti. 

P. R. , Populus Romanus. 

Q. B.F.F. Q.S., quod bonum felix 
faustumque sit. 

S.C., Senatus consultum. 

S.P. D. , Salutem plurimam dicit. 
S.P.Q.R., Senatus populusque Ro¬ 
manus. 

S.V.B.E.E.V., Si vales bene est, 
ego valeo. 

Modern. 

cf., conferatur. 
cp., comparetur. 
del., deleatur. 

D.O.M., Deo Optimo Maximo, 
e.g., exempli gratia, 
h.e., hoc est. 
ibid., ibidem. 




LATIN GRAMMAR. 


190 


[313- 


id., idem, 
i.e , id est. 
i.q., id quod. 

Lib., Libb., liber, libri. 

L.B., lectori benevolo, 

l.c. , loco citato, 
leg., legatur. 

L.S., locus sigilli. scripta. 

MS., MSS., manuscriptum, manu- 
N.B., nota bene. 

N.T., Novum Testamentum. 


P. S., post scriptum. 
q.v., quod vide, 
sc., scilicet. 

sq., sqq., sequenti, sequentibus. 
s.v., sub voce, 
vid., vide, 
viz., videlicet. 

V. cel., vir celeberrimus. 

V. cl., vir clarissimus. 
v.g. , verbi gratia. 

V.T., Vetus Testamentum. 


313. PERIODS OF LATIN LITERATURE. 


I. The Ante-Classical Period, 250 to 81 b.c.— 

Ennius. Plautus. Terence. Lucretius. 


II. The Classical Period— 

(i) Golden age , 81 B.C. to 14 A.D.— 

Cicero. Nepos. Horace. Tibullus. 

Caesar. Livy. Ovid. Propertius. 

Sallust. Virgil. Catullus. 

N.B .—Prose was at its best before Augustus; verse in his 
reign. 


(ii) Silver age, 14 to 180 A.u.— 

Phsedrus. The Plinys. Quintilian. 
Velleius. Tacitus. Suetonius. 
The Senecas. Curtins. Juvenal. 


Persius. 

Lucan. 

Martial. 


III. The Post-Classical Period— 

(i) Brazen age , 180 to 476 A. D.— 

Justin. Eutropius. Lactantius. Claudian. 

Victor. Macrobius. Ausonius. Terentian. 


(ii) Iron age , 476 to 550 a.d.— 

Boethius. Cassiodbrus. Justinian. Priscian. 



INDEX. 


A / (Ah!), construction of, 142, 
N.B. (1). 

Abbreviations, Latin, 312. 

Ablative, inflexions of, see De¬ 
clensions. 

nature of, 101, 201a: ; enlarged by 
preposition, 201 a ; of cause, 
manner, and instrument, 210; 
living agent, 210 (2); with 
middle verb, 211, 211a; of 

source and separation, 212, 
212a ; (or genitive), with words 
signifying plenty or want, 213 
(1), (2); (or nominative), with 
opus est and usus est, 213 (3); 
with assuefio and assuetus, 213 a 
(3); of time when or within 
which, 216 ; of price and worth, 
217 ; of charge, 218a (1). 

Absolute, 219, 219a:/ of compari¬ 
son, 236. 

Abstract nouns, 109 (2), (iii). 

Abutor, a middle verb, 211 a. 

Accipiter, 106 a (3). 

Accusative inflexions, see Declen- 
sions. 

nature of, 101, 2oi*z; enlarged by 
preposition, 201 a ; with transi¬ 
tive verbs, 203; with opus est 
and usus est , 213# (2); of ex¬ 
tent (space), 215 ; (time), 216 ; 
(closer definition), 223; predi¬ 
cative (with factitive verb), 220 ; 
double accusative, 221 ; cog¬ 
nate, 222 ; with impersonals of 
feeling, 225. 


Achilles, 109 (1), (iii). 

Acubus , 107# (3). 

Adjectives defined, 29, 34 (i); 
descriptive and determinative, 
3°, 31, 32 ; of quality and quan¬ 
tity, 31, 122-125; comparison, 
59-61 ; inflexions, 77; adverbial 
use, 209a (3), *** III.; agree¬ 
ment, 76, 207; attributed and 
predicated, 34. 

Possessive , 32, 11 6a ; nature of, 
44, N.B., 11 6a, 117; used sub¬ 
jectively and objectively, 208a. 

Demonstrative , 32 ; nature of, 44, 
116 a, 117; demonstratives of 
quality, 122 (2) ; correspond to 
relatives, 38, 40 (4); attraction, 
209* (3). 

Relative , 32, 118; relatives of 
quality, 122 (2); correlated to 
demonstrative, 38, 40, 122 ; con¬ 
struction of, 209, 209 a ; attrac¬ 
tion, 209a. [See Relative and 
Relative clause.\ 

Correlative, 38, 122. 

Indefinite, 32 (2), (c). 

Interrogative, 32 (2), (d). 

Comparison of adjectives, 59, 61. 

Adjectives, Latin, position of, 
no (1), N.B.) inflexions of 1st 
and 2d Declensions, iii, iii a, 
116; of 3d Declension, 112, 

11 2a. 

Possessive, 116, 116a \ with refert 
and interest, 226. 

Demonstrative, 117, 117a. 




192 


INDEX. 


Relative, 118, 11812 ; various uses 
of, 263a ; with subjunctive, 273, 

2 75 - 277. 2 79 - 

Interrogative, 119, 11912. 

Indefinite, 120, 12012; distinctions 
of, 120 a (4). 

Adjectives with gen. sing, in -ius, 
121 ; comparison of, 113; ir¬ 
regular, 11312. 

Adverbs, nature and use of, 35, 139. 

Descriptive, 36 (1); numeral, 
3 6 (2). 

Demonstrative, 36 (3), 38, 122 

( 4 ). 

Relative, 36 (4), 37, N.B., 38, 
40 (3), 122 (3). 

Correlative, 38, 122 (3). 

Indefinite, 36 (5). 

Interrogative, 36 (6), 259, 260. 

Connective, 37, 40, 139 ; distin¬ 
guished from conjunctive, 46, 
264 ; nature of, 26412. 

Comparison of, 59 ; in Latin, 114, 
11412; irregular, 114a. 

Age, agite, with special meaning, 

i35 (i). 

Agent, living, construction of, 210 
(2), 230. 

Agreement, 75, 76. 

Aio, defective, 1351/. 

Aliqui(s), 120 a (3). 

Allegory, 311 (22). 

Alliteration, 311 (31). 

Ambo, declension, 104a (2), N.B., 
125 (1), N.B. 

Amphorum, 10412 (4). 

Amussim, 106 a (6). 

Anacolouthon, 311 (19). 

Analysis of Sentences, 49-51, 
56, 57, 78 ; representation of, 
301. 

Antecedent (of Relative ), 32 (2), 
209, 209a ; of relative adverb, 

36 (4)- 

Antithesis, 311 (35). 

Aorist (indefinite) tenses, 70, 74. 

A page, 135 A. 

Aphccresis, 311 (1). 

Apis, 10612 (3). 

Apocope, 311 (2). 

Apodosis, 280, 281, 282. 

Apophasis, 311 (32). 

Aposiopesis, 311 (33). 

Apostrophe, 311 (30). 

Apposition, 206. 


Arcubus, 107a (3). 

Argivum, 10412 (4), 10512 (5). 

Article, wanting in Latin, 101, 
N.B. {a). 

Artubus, 107a (3). 

As, divisions of the, 126 (3). 

Assuefio and assuetus, with abla¬ 
tive, 21312 (3). 

Asyndeton, 311 (12). 

Attraction of relative and de¬ 
monstrative, 209a (2), (3). 

Attribute, distinguished from 
Predicate, 33, 33, 206. 

Aulai , 104a (5). 

Ausim, 133a (9), 134(2). 

Aut , distinguished from vel, 288a 

( 3 ). 

Auxiliary, see Verb. 

Ave, 135 [h). 

Axo, 133a (9). 

Belli, locative, 10512 (3), 21412 (3). 

Bini, distinguished from duo, 126 
(i)- 

Brachylogy, 311 (13). 

Ccelebs, gen. plur. of, 112a (3).- 

Canis, 10612 (3). 

Capacity, Roman measures of, 308. 

Capso, 133a (8). 

Cases, why so called, 103 (4). 

Case notions, 201# ; synopsis of 
case construction, 238. 

Cause expressed by ablative, 210, 
2io<2 ; by subjunctive, 274. 

Cedo, cedite (cette), 135 (b). 

Cenatus, 134 (9). 

Cette, 135. (A). 

Clam, 140 (2), N.B. (2). 

Clause, defined, 53, N.B. ; prin¬ 
cipal clause, 56, N.B. ; sub¬ 
ordinate clauses, 54-56, 58; 
noun, adjective, and adverb 
clauses, 56, 254 seq., 261, 262, 
263 seq. ; co-ordinate clauses, 
clauses introduced by ut and 
ne, 25312. 

Clavem (or - im ), 10612 (7). 

Climax, 311 (26). 

Coclicolum, 10412 (4). 

Ccepi, defective, 13512. 

Collective Nouns, 109 (11), (ii); as 
subject, 2ota (4). 

Commands in oratio obliqua, 25412, 
271. 




INDEX. 


193 


Comparative Clauses, 283. 

Comparative Degree, 59, 113^ 
(3) ; complement of, 60, 61 ; 
in Latin adjectives, 113 (1); 
irregular, 113a; abl. sing, 
and gen. plur. of, 113, N.B. ; 
in Latin adverbs, 114, 114a; 
construction with comparative, 
2 35- 

Conipes, 106 a (4). 

Complement of comparative and 
superlative, 60, 61 ; of verbs, 
19-23, 201-205. 

Complex Sentence, see Sentence. 

Compound Sentence, see Sen¬ 
tence. 

Concessive Clauses, 286. 

Conditional Sentences, 281, 282. 

Conditions, disjunctive, 282a. 

Conjunctions, 46, 141; different 
classes of, 287a ; distinguished 
from connective adverbs, 46, 
N.B., 264, N.B. ; couple like 
cases and moods, 287. 

Connective Adverb, see Adverbs. 

Consequence, how expressed, 275. 

Consonants, classified, 302 (3 ) seq.\ 
changes of, 303 (4), (ii). * 

Copulative, see Conjunctions and 
Verb. 

Cor, no gen. plur., io6rt! (12). 

Correlatives, 38, 40 (4), 122. 

Cos, no gen. plur., xo6 a (12). 

Cratera (or -em), crateras, 109 (1), 
(iii). _ 

Cucumerim, 106 a (6). 

Ciijusmodi, used as adj., 208,2 (5). 

Cum (prep.), enclitic, 140, N.B. (1); 
in composition, 140, N.B. (3). 

Daps, no gen. plur., 1062 (12). 

Declensions, Latin, 103. 

First, 104; masculine nouns, 104^; 
dat. and abl. plur. in -abus, 
104a (2); gen. sing, in -as, 
104 a (2); in -ai, 104a (5); gen. 
plur. in -um, 104a (4); locative, 
104, N.B., 104 a (3), 214a (2); 
Greek nouns, 109 (1); stem in 

303 (s)- 

Second, 105 ; genders in, 105a (1); 
vocatives in -i, 105# (2); loca¬ 
tive, 105, N.B., 105# (3), 214^ 
(2); words in -er, how declined, 
105a (4), ma (1); gen. sing. 


in i, 1052 (6), ma (2); gen. 
plur. in -um, 1052 (5), 111 a (3); 
Greek nouns, 109(1), (ii); stem 
in -o, 303 (5). 

Third, divisions of, 106; inflexions 
of, 106; genders in, ioba (1); 
words in -er, how declined, 112 
(1), N.B. ; locative, 106, N.B., 
10 6a (2), 214a (2) ; gen. 

plur. of parisyllabics in -um, 
1060 (3), 112a (4); of impari- 
syllabics in -ium, 106a (4), 
112a (3); wanting, 106# (12); 
acc. sing, in -im, 10 6a (6) ; in 
-em or -im, 106a (7); abl. sing, 
in -i, 106a (8); in -e or -i, 106a (9), 
112a (2); of present participles, 
112a (2); nom. plur. in -ia, 
10 6a (10); acc. plur. in -es or 
-is, io6tf(n); Greek nouns, 109 
(1), (iii); stem in -i or co?ison- 
ants, 303 (5). 

Fourth, a variety of Third, 107, 
N.B.-, inflexions of, 107; gen¬ 
ders in, loya (1); dat. sing, in 
-u, ioya (2); dat. and abl. plur. 
in -ubus, 107a (3). 

Fifth, 108, io 8<2 (2) ; genders in, 
io8a (x); gen. and dat. sing, in 
-e, 108a (3). 

Of Deynonstratives, 117, 1172 ; of 
Relatives , 118, 118a ; of Inter¬ 
rogates, 119, 119a; of Indefi¬ 
nites, 120, 120a ; of Numerals, 

I2 S- 

Delon (or -um), 109 (1), (ii). 

Demonstrative, see Adjective and 
Adverb. 

Deponent Verbs, 134 (1); depon¬ 
ent participles of active verbs, 
134 ( 9 )- 

Diastole , 311 (9). 

Dies, gender of, io8<2 (1). 

Diminutive Nouns, 109 (11), (i); 
adjectives, 113a; verbs, 134(6;. 

Diphthongs, 302 (2), (d) ; changes of, 
303 ( 4 ). (iv). 

Disjunctive clauses, noun, adverb, 
and co-ordinate, distinguished, 
282a: (5); conjunctions, 288# (2). 

Do, 137 (i); in composition, 137 (i), 
N.B. 

Domi, locative, 105# (3) ; 107^ (4). 

Domus, declined, 107a (4); construc¬ 
tion of, 214. 


N 



194 


INDEX. 


Dos, 106 a (4). 

Duabus, 104 a (2). 

Duim, 137 (i). 

Dum, moods with, 285. 

Duo, declined, 104a (2), N.B. ; dis¬ 
tinguished from bi/ii, 126 (1). 

Ecce, construction of, 142, N.B. (2). 
Ecqni(s), 119 a (2). 

Ecthlipsis, 311 (5), N.B. 

Rdo, 137 (/). 

Ego, declined, 115 (1); acc. used for 
voc., 115a; mi for mihi, 115 a 

(2) . 

Eheu, construction of, 142, N.B. (1). 
Ejusmodi, used as adjective, 208a 

. (s)- 

Elision, 311 (5). 

Ellipsis, 311 (11). 

En, construction of, 142, N.B. (2). 
Enallage, 3ri (17). 

Enclitic, N.B. 139. 

Enlargement of subject and predi¬ 
cate, 50. 

Eo, 137 (c). 

Euphemism, 311 (34). 

Extents, use of, 113^ (2), ( d). 

Fabrum, 105 a (5). 

Facio, 137 {h) ; in composition, 
ibid., N.B. 

Factitive, see Verb. 

Familias, gen., 104a (2). 

Fari, defective, 135 (g). 

Far re, 106 a (8). 

Faux, 106 a (4). 

Faxo, 133a (9) ; 137 (h). 

Fearing, verbs of, construction 
with, 278. 

Fero, 137 ( e ). 

Figures of Speech (of Etymology, 
Prosody, Syntax, Rhetoric), 311. 
Filiabus, 104a (2). 

Fio, 137 {d). 

Foris, 214 a (3). 

Fractions, how expressed in Latin, 
126 (2), (3). 

Frater, 106 a (3). 

Fruor, a middle verb, 211^. 

Gender, 14, 18 (3); rules for, in 
Latin, 1st Deck, 104# (1); 2d, 
105a (1); 4th, 107a (1); 5th, 
108a (1) ; general rules, 109 

(3) - 


Gener, 105 a (4). 

Genitive (for inflections, see De¬ 
clensions). 

nature of, 101, *** 201^, 208# (1-5); 
qualifies nouns, 208 ; nouns un¬ 
derstood, 2o8tf, N.B. ; objective 
and subjective, 208 (2), (3); of 
definition (possessive and demon¬ 
strative), 208 a (1), 208, N.B. (1), 
(2); of quality and qtiantity, 
208a (2) ; of gerund with su?n 
to express effect, 2080 (2) (iv); 
qualifying verbs, 208 (2) and 
N.B. (2), 213a (1) ; adjectives, 
ibid. ; with words of pletity and 
want, 213, 213 a ; with opus est 
and usus est, 213 a (2) ; of value, 
217 (2); with verbs of buying and 
sellmg, 21 qa (2); of charge, 218 ; 
of being remembered or forgotten, 
224 ; of object felt for, 225 ; with 
refert and interest, 226. 

Gerund, 129(5); used for infinitive, 
129 (5), N.B. (1), (2); as sub¬ 
ject, 20 1a (2) ; takes case of its 
verb, 203a (1); qualified by 
adverbs, *** 210#. 

Glis, io6tf. (4). 

Grimm’s Law, 303 (8). 

Hadria, masc., 104# (1). 

Hei, construction of, 142, N.B. (3). 

Hendiadys, 311 (16). 

Heteroclite nouns, 109 (4). 

Heterogeneous nouns, 109 (5). 

Hiatus, 311 (6). 

Hie, demonstrative of 1st person, 
117, 269, N.B. 

Hispalim, 106 a (6). 

Hujusmodi, used as adjective, 208^ 

( 5 ). 

Huj?ii, locative, 105a (3), 214a (3). 

Hyperbaton, 311 (20). 

Hyperbole, 311 (27). 

Idem and idem, 117a (1). 

Igne (or -i), 106a (9). 

I lie, demonstrative of 3d person, 117. 

Illic, declined, 117a (2). 

Imperative, nature of, 67, 248; 
subject of, 7, N.B. (1), (c); 
tense of, in Latin, 129 (3); 
forms in -to and -tor, 133 a (3), 
(4); when used in prohibitions, 
133a (4), N.B. 




INDEX. 


195 


Impersonal verbs (active and pas¬ 
sive), 239-242. 

Indeclinable nouns, 109 (2); gender 
of, 109 (3), (iii). 

Indefinite, see Adjectives and Ad¬ 
verbs. 

Indicative mood, nature of, 67, 
74 (4). 129 (1), 247. 

Indirect or Remote Object, see 
Object. 

Inferus , use of, 113a (2), (e). 

Infinitive of Latin verbs, 129 (4); 
as subject, 201 a (2) ; as object, 
203a (2); used instead of ger¬ 
und, 129 (5), N.B. 

Present Active in -ier, 133 a (8); 
Future Passive, bow supplied, 
129(4), N.B., 241(7(2) ; qualified 
adverbially, *** 210a ; nature 
of infinitive, 250 ; historic infin¬ 
itive, 254(7 (7). 

Infinitive clauses, how used, 254, 
255 ; subject omitted, 254(7: (4). 

Inflexion, N.B. 76; summary of 
inflexions, 77. 

Ingeni , 105 a (6). 

Inquam, defective, parts of, 135 [e )— 
see 127 (1), N.B. (2); construc¬ 
tion of, 254a (5). 

Interest of money, Roman, 306 (5). 

Interest, construction of, 226. 

Interjection, 48, 142. 

Interrogative, see Adjectives and 
Adverbs. 

Interrogative clause, how used, 
256. 

Intransitive, see Verb. 

Intransitive verbs used impersonally 
in passive, 241. 

Irony, 311 (25). 

Iste, demonstrative of 2d person, 117, 
269, N.B. 

Istic, declined, 117a (2). 

Ita — ut, 122, N.B. 

jfubare, 106a (8). 

Juratus, 134 (9). 

Juvenis, 106 a (3). 

Lacubus, to ja (3). 

Length, Roman measures of, 307. 

Letters classified, 302. 

Levasso, 133a (9). 

Liber (Bacchus), 105(7 (4). 

Licet, 286 (4). 


Lis, 10 6a (4). 

Literature, Latin, periods of, 313. 

Litotes, 311 (28). 

Locative Case, ioi, 104, N.B., 
201 a ; used for place where, 214, 
214a. 

Malo, 137 (b). 

Alas, io6(7 (4). 

Mater, 106 a (3). 

Matrona, masc., 104(7 (1). 

Memini, defective, 135 (c ); tenses, 
135 ( c )> N.B.\ construction of, 

224 ( 7 . 

Messem (or -ini), 106a (7). 

Metaphor, 311 (21). 

Metathesis, 311 (4). 

Metonymy, 311 (23). 

Meus, vocative of, 11 6a (1). 

Middle verbs, 134, A T .B., 211a. 

Militice, locative, 104# (3), 214(7 (3). 

Mille, declension and use of,’ 125 (1), 
N.B. 

Miseret, construction of, 225(7. 

Modal, see Verb. 

Money, Roman, 306. 

Months, names of, their nature, 109 
(3), N.B .; declension of, 1x2 (1), 
N.B. 

Mood, see Verb. 

Mood notions, 247-250; synopsis 
of mood construction, 288, 289. 

Motive, how expressed, 276. 

Mus, 106a (4). 

Names, Roman, 309. 

Naven (or -ini), 106 a (7). 

Nectdre, 10 da (8). 

Nequam, comparison of, 113(7 (1); 
indeclinable in positive, 113 (2) 
(i). 

Neuter nouns, declension of, 103 (2). 

Nix, 10 6a (4). 

Nolo, 137 (b). 

Nominative, nature of, 101, *** 
201#. 

Nostras, 116a (3). 

Nouns, defined, 4, 8(3), 10; proper 
and common, 12; patronymic, 
109 (1) ; diminutive, 109(11); 
collective, 109 (xi), (ii); ab¬ 
stract, 109 (11), (iii); verbal, 65; 
number, 13, 18 (2) ; gender, 

14, 18 (3); case defined, 41-45 ; 
inflexions, 77 (1) 



196 


INDEX. 


Nouns, Latin, inflexions of, 109 ; 
gender, 109 (3); indeclinable, 
109 (2); heteroclite, 109 (4); 
heterogeneous, 109 (5) ; without 
sing., 109 (6); with special 
meaning in plur., 109(8); quali¬ 
fication of, 205, *** 206, 207- 
209. 

Number, in nouns, 13, 18 (2); 102 ; 
in verbs, 19. 

Numerals, 31 (1); cardinal, or¬ 
dinal, distributive, adverbial, 
123-125 ; distributives, when 
used for cardinals, 126 (1). 

Numeration, Roman, 304. 

Nummum , 105a (5). 

01 construction of, 142, N.B. (1). 

Object, 23 ; Direct, 23 (1), and 
N.B., 28 (4), 203; becomes sub¬ 
ject of passive, 62, N.B., 203 
(2); Indirect (Remote), 23 
(2), and N.B., 28 (5), *** 227 ; 
object case in English, 43, N.B. 

Oblique Cases, ioi, N.B. (c ); 
Construction, 254, 255; 

Statement and Question, 
258 ; Speech ( oratio obliqua), 
rules for, 265-271. 

Obliviscor, construction of, 224a. 

Occisit, 133a (9). 

Odi, tenses of, 135. 

Olli, 117a (3). 

Onomatopoeia, 311 (36). 

Optimates, 106 a (4). 

Opus est, construction of, 213, 213^. 

Oxymoron, 311 (37). 

Palus, 106 a (5). 

Fanis, 106 a (3). 

Paronomasia, 311 (38). 

Participle, nature of, 65, N.B. 
(2); Latin participles, 129 (7) ; 
Present, declined, 112a, 129 (7), 
132a (4); Perfect, 129 (7) ; 

Future, 129 (7) ; gerundive, 

129 (7); deponent participles of 
active verbs, 134 (9). 

Partitive words take genitive, 208, 
N.B. (1). 

Parts of Speech, 9, 10, n, 47. 

Partubus, 10 ja (3). 

Pater, 106 a (3). 

Patronymics, 109. 

Pelvem (or -im), 10 6a (7). 


Penates, 106 a (4). 

Perfect distinguished from Pre¬ 
terite, 129 ( e), N.B. 

Periphrastic tenses, 128. 

Person in nouns and pronouns, 16, 
18 (5); in verbs, 20, 127 (1); 
of relative, 209 (2) ; person- 
endings in Latin, their nature, 
127 (1). 

Phrase, 7, N.B. (3), 204a, N.B. 

Piget, construction of, 225a. 

Place, how expressed (where, 
whither, whence), 214, 214#. 

Pleonasm, 311 (15). 

Plus, compared, 113a (1) ; how 
used in positive, 113a (2). 

Poenitet, construction of, 225a. 

Portubus, 107a (3). 

Possession, when expressed by gen., 
208a (1). 

Possessive, see Adjectives. 

Possessive case in English, 43, 
N.B. 

Possum, 137 a. 

Potior, a middle verb, 211a ; takes 
abl. or gen., 211. 

Pransus, 134 (9). 

Predicate, 7 and N.B. (1), (2), 8 
(6), (8); enlargement of, 50. 

Predicative words distinguished 
from attributes, 33, 34 (2), 

*** 206#. 

Prepositions, 44, 45 (4); in Latin, 
with acc., 140 (1); with abl., 
140 (2); with acc. or abl., 140 
(3); enclitic, 140, N.B. (1); fol¬ 
lowing case, 140, N.B. (3); 
when employed, 201a, 210a, 
212a ; force sometimes retained 
in composition, 221a (4). 

Preterite, distinguished from 
Perfect, 129, N.B. (2). 

Price, how expressed, 217. 

Principal verb, 243. 

Prior, nature and declension of, 
125 (2), N.B. 

Pro! construction of, 142, N.B. (1). 

Prohibesso, 133a (9). 

Prohibitions, in Latin, how ex¬ 
pressed, 133a (4), N.B. 

Proles, 106 a (3). 

Pronouns, defined, 15 and N.B., 
17, 18 (6), 47 (3), 115; declen¬ 
sion in Latin, 115, 115a; used 
in oblique speech, 270, 270 a. 



INDEX. 


197 


Prosody, 3x0. 

Prosopopoeia, 311 (29). 

Protasis, 280, 281. 

Pudet, construction of, 239. 

Puppem (or - ini ), 106 a (7). 

Purpose, how expressed, 277. 

Qu, considered as one letter, 113 a 

(s). n.b. 

Qu<zro, defective, 135 (/). 

Qualify, term explained, 11, N.B. 

(1) . (2). 

Quam (than), with comparative, 
2 35 ; 235a-, 236, 237. 

Quamvis, 286 (3). 

Quanquam, 286 (2). 

Quantity, how indicated, 103 (3). 
Queo, 137 (g). 

Quercubus, loya (3). 

Questions, how introduced, 260 ; 
disjunctive questions, 259, A T .B. 

(2) ; in oblique speech, 260, 270, 
2700:; rhetorical questions, 
270 a (2). 

Qui f (quis ?), quod ? {quid ?), 
119a; indefinite, 120a. 
Quicumque, n8«. 

Quidam, 120 a. 

Quilibet , i20<2 (3). 

Quirt, use of, 2 qqa. 

Quispiam, 120 a (3). 

Quisquam, 120a (3); declined, 120, 
N.B. 

Quisque, 120a (3). 

Quisquis, 118a (1) and A T .B. 

Quivis, 120 a (3). 

Quod clauses, 253, 261, 272. 
Quominus, use of, 277 a (4). 

Quum (when), moods with, 284; 
quum — turn, 122, 264, 285a. 

Pecordor, construction of, 224 a. 
Refert , construction of, 226. 
Relative, see Adjectives and 
Adverbs. 

Relative Clause, qualifies a 
noun, 209 ; construction of, ib. 
Reminiscor, 22412. 

Reste, 10 6a (9). 

Restem (or -im), 10 6a (7). 

Roots, 303 (1); verbal and pro¬ 
nominal, 303 (2). 

Ruri , locative, io6<2 (2). 

Rus , construction of, 214. 


Salve, 135 (h ). 

Securem (or -i?n), 10 6a (7). 

Securi, 10 6a (9). 

Semi-deponents, 134 (2). 

Senex, ro6a (3). 

Sentence, defined, 2, 8 (2); parts 
of, 3, 10, 201, %*; enlarged, 
50, 206, ***; Simple, 52, 
58 (1); Complex, 53, 58 (3); 
Compound, 53 58 (6), 287; 
analysis of, 49-51, 56, 57, 78, 
301. 

Sequdna, masc., 104a (x). 

Sequence of Moods, 247-250; of 
Tenses, 129(2), {a), (b), 251-253. 

Servitus, 106a (5). 

Sestertium, 105 a (5). 

Sexcenti , of indefinite number, 124, 
N.B. 

Si, use of, 281 seq. ; is never inter¬ 
rogative, 282a (5); derivation 
of, 264a. 

Sic — ut, 122, N.B. 

Simile, 311 (21), N.B. 

Sitim, 106 a (6). 

Socer, 105^ (4). 

Space, how expressed, 215, 215a. 

Specubus, 107 a (3). 

Stems, 303 (3), seq. ; in the various' 
declensions, 303 (5); in the 
various conjugations, 303 (6). 

Strix, 106 a (4). 

Subject, 6, 7, N.B., 8 (6), (7); of 
a finite verb, 201, 201#; not 
separately expressed, 201a (1); 
enlarged, 50 ; compound, 57, 
N.B., 201 a (3); collective, 201 a 

(4). 

Subjunctive, nature of, 67, 74 (4), 
129 (2), and N.B. 249, 266; 
indirect question, 67, N.B. ; 
{Latin) characteristic of, 127 
(3), N.B. (1); how Englished, 
ibid., N.B. (2); used indepen¬ 
dently (conjunctive), force opta¬ 
tive or potential, X29 (2) ; force 
of tenses, ibid. ; used subordin¬ 
atedy (subjunctive), signification, 
129 ; force of tenses, 129 (2), 
(iii), 282a (2) ; general rules for 
subjunctive, 273 seq. ; subjunc¬ 
tive of inexact definition, 279 ; 
with relative, 279, 262 {a). 

Substantive, see Nouns and Pro¬ 
nouns. 



198 


INDEX. 


Sui, 115 (3). 

Sum, 132. 

Superlative degree, 59 ; absolute 
superlative, 59, N.B. ; comple¬ 
ment of, 60, 61 (4); how formed 
in Latin adjectives, 113 (2); 
of words in -er, 113 (2), (b); 
of words in -ills, 113 (2), (c ); 
irregular, 113#; in Latin ad¬ 
verbs, 114, 114 a. 

Superus, 113# (2), (f). 

Supines, 129 (6); take case of their 
verbs, 203a (1); qualified by- 
adverbs, 209a; in -um, nature 
and construction of, 214a (6); 
in - u , 210 a (2). 

Synceresis, 311 (7). 

Synalcepha, 311 (5), N.B. 

Synapheia, 311 (5), N.B. 

Syncope, 311 (3). 

Synecdoche, 311 (24). 

Synesis, 311 (18). 

Systole, 311 (10). 

Tcedet, construction of, 225 ( a). 

Tam — quam , 122, N.B. 

Tautology, 311 (15), N.B. 

Taxis, 133a (9). 

Tense, see Verb. 

Sequence of tenses, 129 (2), (a), 
(b), 251-253. 

Tenus, follows its case, 140, N.B. (3). 

Tiberim, 106 a (6). 

Time, construction of, 216; Roman 
measures of, 305. 

Trajective words, 23, 25, 205, 227, 
22 qa. 

Trans, in composition, 221a (4). 

Tribubus, 10 qa (3). 

Trope, 311 (25). 

Tu, declined, 115 (2); acc. used for 
voc. 115a. 

Turrem (or -im), 106 a (7). 

Ttissim, 106 a (6). 

TJlixei, 109 (1), (iii). 

Ullus, 120 a (3), I2i. 

Unus declined, 125 ; use in plural, 
125, N.B. 

Usus est, construction of, 213, 213#. 

Ut, various uses of, 275(2 ; derivation, 
of, 264(2. 

Uterque , 121. 

Utor, 211, 211 a. 


Vce, construction of, 142, N.B. (3). 

Vale, valete, used with special mean¬ 
ing, 135 (i). 

Value, how expressed, 217 (2). 

Vates, 106 a (3). 

Vel, distinguished from aut, 288(2 (3). 

Verb, defined, 5, 8 (4), 10; use of, 
19, 20, 74 (1); agreement of, 
201, 2oi(2 ; complements of, 21, 
22, 23, 28 (1), 201-205; how 
qualified, 35-37, 41, 101, 205, 
210; Person, 20 ; how marked 
in Latin, 127 (1); Voice, active 
and passive, 62, 74 (2); how 
marked in Latin, 127 (4); 

Tenses, distinction of, 68-74; 
how marked in Latin, 73; se¬ 
quence of, 129 (2), 251, 253; 
periphrastic tenses, 128, 129 (4); 
Moods, distinction of, 66, 67, 
129; meaning of, 247-250; 
Verb, Finite and Infinite, 
distinction of, 63, 64, 74 (3) ; 
verb infinite, parts of, their 
nature, 65, 74 (5), 129 (4-7); 
force of tenses in verb infinite, 
72, 251, 252; Different 

kinds of Verbs—Regular, 
130, I 33 ! contractions admis¬ 
sible, 133# (2); Auxiliary, 27, 
74 (8); Copulative, 22, 28 (2), 
202; Defective, 130, N.B., 
135; Deponent, 134(1); Semi¬ 
deponent, 134(2); Desidera- 
tive, 134 (5); Diminutive, 
134 (6); Factitive, 26, 28 (8), 
203, 220, 220^; Frequenta¬ 
tive, 134 (3); Imitative, 134 
(7); Impersonal and quasi 
Impersonal, 239-242; Incep¬ 
tive, 134 (4); Intransitive, 
24, 28 (6) ; with accusative, 
222; Modal, 73, N.B., 74 (9), 
204 ; quasi Passive, 134 (8); 
Trajective, 25, 227, 234; 

Transitive, 24, 28 (6), 203; 
Verbs sentiendi et declarandi, 
construction of, 255, 254a (3) ; 
of asking, commanding, advis¬ 
ing, and striving. 277 a (2). 

Verbals— (1) parts of verb infinite, 
65, N.B., 129 (4-7), *** 210; 
English verbals in -ing, dis¬ 
tinction of, 65, N.B. (2), 129 
(7), N.B. (2). 




INDEX. 


199 


(2) derived from verbs, some¬ 
times retain case of verb, *** II., 
2Xo« ; in -bundus or - cundus , 
133 (10), (a); in -bilis, 133 (9), (£); 
in -ax, 133 (9), (c) ; in -idus, 
133 ( 9 >» i^- 

Versus, follows its case, 140, N.D. (3). 

Verubus, 107a (3). 

Vescor, 134, 211a. 

Vesper, 105 a (4); vesperi, 105^ (3). 

Vestras, 116 a (3). 


Virum , 105a (5). 

Vis, declined, 10 6a (4), (e). 
Vocative Case, 48, xoi, 201a. 
Volo, 137 (6). 

Vowels, 302 (2); changes of, 303 
(4); thematic vowel, 303 (4), (a). 

Weight, Roman measures of, 306. 
Worth, 217. 

Zeugvia, 311 (14). 


THE END. 


PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 








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